How do Brazilian immigrant youths notions of race and racial identities mutate as they spend more time in the United States, and more importantly, as the first generation becomes the second generation? How do the children of Brazilian immigrants (both foreign-born and U.S.-born) come to understand their racial identities and the significance of race in the United States, versus in Brazil? What do these generational identity mutations mean for the Brazilian American community at large, as well as the interplay between Brazilian and American ideas of race? How does the later-generation Brazilian experience compare with those of other latergeneration Latin American-origin immigrant groups in the United States?I use results from 1990 and 2000 U.S. census data, as well as 22 semi-structured interviews with Brazilian immigrant youth in Boston, to show how Brazilians are becoming racialized into the black-white binary of American society, and how over time they manage to escape the downward mobility of Hispanic/Latino categorization by becoming (mostly white and some black) Americans and playing off U.S. natives Spanish-centered understanding ofHispanics/Latinos. I highlight an important part of this trend, showing how and why some second-generation Brazilians come to look back on their first-generation immigrant counterparts as non-whites or Latinos. I conclude by highlighting some key comparisons between thisgenerational trend and those of the descendants of other Latin American-origin immigrants, and by exploring Brazilians place in and contributions to the changing racial order in the United States today. The later-generation Brazilian case may help advance the case of black exceptionalism, where in the midst of a reshuffling of the American racial hierarchy, not being black may become a more central feature of identity formation and understanding in the United States than not being white, and where in the collective several Latin American-origin immigrant groups (including Brazilians) may become whiter over time by virtue of identifying increasingly as non-black as well as non-Hispanic/Latino.

We develop a new approach for studying remarital fertility differentials with individual-level, cross-sectional data and use it to investigate hypotheses related to historical racial differences in remarital fertility. Data come from the 1910 IPUMS. The methodology provides a means to evaluate differentials in remarital fertility net of the influences of missing children due to mortality and fostering/aging out/home leaving, as well as other contextual influences. In substantive findings, consistent with traditional interpretations of historical African American fertility patterns which emphasize involuntary influences on fecundity and fertility (e.g., venereal disease, poor health, complications from childbirth), we find that African Americans are less likely than European Americans to have had a remarital birth. However, conditional on having at least one remarital birth (i.e., among those with proven fecundity), there is no significant difference between European and African Americans with respect to the number of remarital births they had. Supplemental analyses indicate that these results are robust.

Patent laws are designed to create the optimal incentives for innovation, but we know little about how exactly this works. The need to better understand the effects of patent laws is particularly urgent today, as industrialized countries lobby to introduce and strengthen patent laws in developing countries around the world. Although it is difficult to predict the results of such changes, historical data from the mid-nineteenth century may hold important lessons for patent policies today. The nineteenth century is an ideal period to study the effects of patent laws: Mid-nineteenth-century patent laws were adopted in a relatively ad-hoc manner, depending on legal traditions rather than economic considerations. Large differences in patent systems existed across countries, and patentees depended on domestic patent laws because patenting abroad was prohibitively expensive and almost all countries discriminated heavily against foreign patentees. As a result, domestic patent laws played a more important role in creating incentives for domestic invention than at any later stage in history.

This paper summarizes research on standards for collecting travel survey data. It then describes some of the efforts at organizing data and developing metadata. The development of metadata standards used for documenting datasets using DDI (Data Documentation Initiative) for DTD (Document Type Definitions) is described. A case, applying these approaches to a US Metropolitan Travel Survey Archive is presented. The Metropolitan Travel Survey Archive, housed at the University of Minnesota, now contains over 60 surveys from almost 30 metropolitan areas. The paper concludes with some recommendations for archiving travel survey data.

Drawing on labor stratification and life course perspectives, this article extends recent work on the role of labor market conditions in neighborhood rates of violent crime by examining whether distinct aspects of labor market quantity (joblessness) and quality (secondary sector Work and low-wage jobs) have varying effects on violent arrest rates for teenagers, young adults, and older adults. Drawing on data for census tracts in Cleveland, Ohio, we demonstrate that the relevance of the labor market for violent crime is contingent on the age group and characteristic examined. Labor market conditions have limited effects on violent arrest rates for teens. Older adult rates are influenced only by levels of joblessness. However, violent crime among younger adults is affected by both the quantity and the quality of work. We discuss the theoretical and empirical

This paper summarizes research on standards for collecting travel survey data. It then describes some of the efforts at organizing data and developing metadata. The development of metadata standards used for documenting datasets using DDI (Data Documentation Initiative) for DTD (Document Type Definitions) is describ ed. A case, applying these approaches to a US Metropolitan Travel Survey Archive is presented. The Metropolitan Travel Survey Archive, housed at the University of Minnesota, now contains over 60 surveys from almost 30 metropolitan areas. The paper concludes withsome recommendations for processing, analyzing, and archiving data.

Using IPUMS data for 1940 through 2000, this paper examines the changing marriage patterns of men and women. Small changes in the distribution of men and women aged 18 to 39 by marital status over the past sixty years have been accompanied by larger changes in education and income. This analysis examines the changing effects of education and income on the marital status of men and women. In addition to providing a descriptive portrait of young adults by marital status, this analysis examines the evidence for the marriage gradient and independence hypotheses of marriage. Preliminary results indicate that the relationship between education and marital status has become more similar over time for men and women. The most educated men and women are now most likely to be married, while the opposite was true for women in the earlier part of the analysis period. Income remains a important determinant of marital status for men but not for women.

The Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN) contracted with the Institute of Social and Economic Research, at the University of Alaska Anchorage, to look at social and economic conditions among Alaska Natives in 2004 and in the recent past.This report marks the first comprehensive look at conditions among Alaska Natives since 1989.1 That earlier report found Alaska Natives to be far more likely than other Alaskans to be poor or out of work; to live in unsafe conditions; to lack the education needed for better-paying jobs; and to suffer many effects of alcohol abuse. Alaska Natives were also more likely to die young and violently.

This article provides an overview of the mushrooming economicsliterature on how community attributes influence the level of civic engagement. Since 1997, at least 15 empirical papers have investigated the consequences of heterogeneity for social capital. Social capital has been measured using indicators of group participation (such as volunteer activity, organizational membership and activity, entertaining and visiting friends and relatives, and voting), indicators of the strength of network ties (trust, for example), and indicators of community commitment (such as public expenditures and loan repayment to community members). These papers cover different nations, different socialcapital measures, and even different centuries. But a common theme emerges: more-homogeneous communities foster greater levels of social-capital production. After we touch upon the literature, we synthesize our past work on volunteering and membership in the United States over the last 20 years with new findings on trust and voting. We also discuss our work on community in the U.S. military during the Civil War.

This paper uses improved source data to test various theories of U.S. antebellum fertility decline. In the first part of the analysis, we rely on child-woman ratios and other county-level aggregate data from the population and economic censuses of 1800 to 1860 and the agricultural and manufacturing censuses of 1840-1860 to evaluate a number of hypotheses. Data on churches in 1850 and 1860 provide some indications of ideational differences across counties. We supplement these commonly-used data in a number of ways. We include, for example, new estimates of urbanization and the geographic areas of the counties in all census years. More critically, for the 1850 and 1860 analysis, we include aggregated estimates of nuptiality constructed with the 1850 and 1860 IPUMS samples. We are thus able to determine whether identified correlates of child-woman ratios in the antebellum period remain significant when nuptiality is included in the modelin other words, to suggest whether the correlates of child-woman ratios act as Malthusian or neo-Malthusian adjustments. We take this analysis one step further in the second part of the analysis, where we rely on the 1850 and 1860 IPUMS samples to model marital fertility at the individual level.

The quantity and character of internal migration in the American past is a contentious historiographical issue. Over a century ago, Frederick Jackson Turner pointed to westward migration as a safety valve that profoundly affected the nature of the Republic. With the closing of the frontier, Turner predicted, the population flow to the West would decline.1 Turner's twentieth-century critics argued that the greatest American population movement was not westward expansion, but rather urbanization, which accelerated throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Beginning in the 1960s, social historians using new quantitative approaches fleshed out the critique of Turner, arguing that high migration to and between urban areas in the nineteenth century did not result in improved economic opportunity.This article uses new evidence to reevaluate internal migration in the American past. Our three major findings are consistent with Turner's interpretation. First, we identify a U-shaped pattern of change: the nineteenth century had the highest overall levels of migration, followed by a decline in the first half of the twentieth century and a resurgence after World War II. Thus, by the time Turner wrote about the closing of the frontier, a dramatic decline in geographic mobility was already under way. The highest mobility in American history occurred during the first half of the nineteenth century, and there was a steady decline in interstate mobility until well into the twentieth century. Second, we show that the high levels of nineteenth-century migration resulted from long-distance westward migration to farms, whereas the high migration of the late twentieth century can be ascribed to white suburbanization and black Patricia Kelly Hall is a doctoral candidate at the University of Minnesota, and Steven Ruggles is Distinguished McKnight University Professor of History and Population Studies at the University of Minnesota. migration to northern cities. Finally, we look briefly at the relationship between geographic mobility and social mobility and find evidence suggesting that migration may have improved economic opportunity.

Much of the controversy surrounding school vouchers, and privatization schemes generally, stems from concerns about social stratification. This paper identifies the form and magnitude of selection effects in a means-tested New York City voucher program. It compares students who applied for vouchers, with the eligible population of public-school students; those who initially used vouchers, with those who declined them; and those who remained in private schools, with those who eventually returned to public schools. Differences along the lines of ethnicity, residential mobility, mothers education, and income are observed. In addition, specific aspects of a child education-parental satisfaction, school uniform requirements, and larger class sizes-all increased the length of time voucher students remained in private schools. Throughout the programs life span, however, the largest and most consistent effects revolved around families' religious identity and practices. (C) 2004 by the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management.

Most married couples in the United States are homogamous, which means that the two spouses share similar demographic and/or socioeconomic characteristics. This Family Profile examines patterns of marital homogamy for newlyweds (married for less than a year) and couples that have been married for over a year. We explore variation in educational, racial/ethnic, age, and nativity status homogamy for different-sex married couples using 2022 American Community Survey data. This profile provides an update of the estimates from FP-21-06, FP-18-18, FP-15-16, FP-15- 15, and FP-15-14

Research on the effect of parental human capital on childrens human capital is complicated by the endogeneity of parental human capital. This study exploits the phenomenon that younger children learn languages more easily than older children to construct an instrumental variable for language human capital. Thus, among U.S.-born children with childhood immigrant parents, those whose parents arrived to the U.S. as younger children tend to have more exposure to English at home. We find a significant positive effect of parents English-speaking proficiency on childrens English-speaking proficiency while the children are young, but eventually all children attain the highest level of English-speaking proficiency as measured by the Census. We find evidence that children with parents with lower English-speaking proficiency are more likely to drop out of high school, be below their age-appropriate grade, and not attend preschool. Strikingly, parental English-language skills can account for 60% of the difference in dropout rate between non-Hispanic whites and U.S.-born Hispanic children of immigrants. (JEL J13, J24, J62)

The Bureau of Labor Statistics projects that healthcare services will account for one out of every six new jobs from 2002 to 2012. Immigrants are a significant percentage of workers in both high-skill and low-skill jobs (one fourth of both physicians and nursing aides) in the healthcare industry. Within this industry, immigrants are at least as important in meeting demand for low-skilled jobs as they are for the more hotly debated upper end. Even so, the authors findings suggest that recent wage increases are attracting more registered nurses, offsetting claims of shortages in the short term. Immigration policy should be flexible to meet short-term shifts in demand, but it should not preempt domestic responses.

Using longitudinal data on individual males linked between censuses separated by 30 years,we examine patterns of geographic and occupational mobility in the last half of thenineteenth century for two industrializing economies: Britain (1851-81) and the U.S. (1850-80). We find considerably higher rates of geographic mobility in the U.S. Though thefrequency of moves was similar (roughly two thirds moved over 30 years in each country),moves were ten times as great in distance in the U.S. Upward occupational mobility betweenfathers and sons occupations and between an individuals first and last jobs wasconsiderably more frequent in the U.S. For example, only one in five sons of unskilledfathers in the U.S. at the start of the 1850s failed to attain a higher status job by the start ofthe 1880s; the corresponding figure for Britain was nearly one in two. Upward mobility wasassociated more strongly with education in Britain than in the U.S. Backgroundcharacteristics more generally were better predictors of occupational attainment in Britainthan in the U.S.

We examine the issue of how to measure the degree to which a functional dependency (FD) is approximate. The primary motivation lies in the fact that approximate FDs represent potentially interesting patterns existent in a table. Their discovery is a valuable data mining problem. However, before algorithms can be developed, a measure must be defined quantifying their approximation degree. First we develop an approximation measure by axiomatizing the following intuition: the degree to which X --> Y is approximate in a table T is the degree to which T determines a function from Pi(X)(T) to Pi(Y)(T). We prove that a unique unnormalized measure satisfies these axioms up to a multiplicative constant. Next we compare the measure developed with two other measures from the literature. In all but one case, we show that the measures can be made to differ as much as possible within normalization. We examine these measure on several real datasets and observe that many of the theoretically possible extreme differences do not bear themselves out. We offer some conclusions as to particular situations where certain measures are more appropriate than others. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.