This chapter presents an empirical analysis of US citizenship acquisition among immigrants from Latin America in the 1990s. While immigrants from Latin America have had historically lower propensity to naturalize than immigrants from other parts of the world, they are observed to experience the largest hikes in naturalization in the 1990s. Welfare and illegal immigration reforms that made access to public benefits and other selected rights increasingly dependent on citizenship are among the explanations that have often been offered for the surge in naturalizations in the 1990s. Other explanations include changes in immigration laws in the late 1980s, which allowed large numbers of immigrants to apply for citizenship in the mid-1990s, and anti-immigrant reform attempts (such as in California). The common denominator of the available explanations is that they are about domestic administrative and political changes, and neglect to consider those sending-country policies that might have affected immigrants' propensity to naturalize in the 1990s. Notably, between 1991 and 1996, some important Latin American sending countries (Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Costa Rica, and Brazil) changed their laws and granted their expatriates the right to naturalize in the receiving country without losing their nationality of origin. Immigrants from these countries are expected to be more likely to naturalize because of the decrease in a major cost of naturalization, specifically the need to forfeit rights in their country of origin. The analysis presented in this chapter suggests that these laws are associated with an increase of 10 percentage points in the probability of naturalization of immigrants coming from Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Costa Rica, and Brazil. These effects are sizable, explaining one sixth of the overall rise in the naturalization rate of non-Mexican Latin Americans in the 1990s.

The empirical study of the intergenerational allocation of workers between economic sectors using French data over the period 1968-2005 provides evidence of large cohort effects. Age differences between industries are large and evolve cyclically over time in some industries which display periods of ageing followed by periods of rejuvenation. The model aims at explaining these findings studying an economy in which workers have different time horizon and must incur industry specific human capital investments. Interactions between generations influence the allocation of workers between industries. The average age of workers in each sector cycles toward a steady state in which there is no age difference between sectors. I detail how a technological change provokes this dynamics because of the varying time horizon of the labor force and the different types of skills needed to implement the new technology. Empirical evidences show that growing industries are younger whereas older industries display less interindustry labor turnover.

American Indians living on reservations have substantially lower levels of employment and income than co-resident non-Indians. Gaming has emerged as an attempt by tribes to improve the socio-economic status of their members. This paper uses simulated maximum likelihood to estimate the eect of the tribal decision to open a gaming facility on employment of its members. Unlike dierence-in-dierences estimators, it does not require the assumption that the time trend in employment is the same across reservations. Opening a casino is associated with a 14 percentage point increase in the probability that the head of household is employed.

We show that estimated productivities of labor and capital which rationalize trade flows across countries are related to total factor productivities which rationalize output differences across countries. We present evidence that these productivies from trade flows are related to the institutions and geography across countries. Protection of property rights is the dominant influence on both labor and capital productivity. We also address whether these institutions have a differential effect on those with relatively less education. We find little evidence that more property rights protection has a differential impact on skilled workers relative to unskilled workers. Evidence concerning democracy 1 is not compelling. Geography is only important in terms of distance to a large market. Acknowledgement 1 We thank Daron Acemoglu, William Dougan, Stanley

This paper updates and extends the Docquier-Marfouk data set on international migration by educational attainment. We use new sources, homogenize de…nitions of what a migrant is, and compute gender-disaggregated indicators of the brain drain. Emigration stocks and rates are provided by level of schooling and gender for 195 source countries in 1990 and 2000. Our data set can be used to capture the recent trend in women's brain drain and to analyze its causes and consequences for developing countries. We show that women represent an increasing share of the OECD immigration stock and exhibit relatively higher rates of brain drain than men. The gender gap in skilled migration is strongly correlated with the gender gap in educational attainment at origin. Equating women's and men's access to education would probably reduce gender di¤erences in the brain drain. JEL Classi…cation: F22, J61.

In this article we present two sets of empirical analyses that consider the extent to which socioeconomic gradients in self-assessed health and child mortality changed since the beginning of the twentieth century in the United States. This empirical issue has important and wide-ranging research and policy implications. In particular our results speak to the value of considering the role of broader social, economic, and political inequalities in generating and maintaining socioeconomic disparities in morbidity and mortality. Despite dramatic declines in morbidity and mortality rates in the United States across the twentieth century, we find that socioeconomic-status gradients in morbidity and mortality declined only modestly (if at all) during that period.

Over 600,000 men died in the American Civil War--roughly equal to the number of deaths suffered in all other American wars through the Korean War combined. In this paper, we investigate the impact of wartime mortality on subsequent nuptiality through a microsimulation coupled with an empirical investigation of age at marriage and proportions ever marrying in the 1850-1880 IPUMS samples. We construct microsimulations, indices of the intensity of the postwar marriage squeeze (including the marital sex ratio and Schoen's index), and nuptiality estimates for each census region. We focus our discussion, however, on the postwar South, which lost an estimated 1-in-4 white men of military age in the conflict--three times the rate of death in the North. Diaries, letters, and memoirs of nurses, soldiers, and people on the home front supplement the analysis and confirm the presence of a developing marriage squeeze on southern white women.

Most analyses of the urban core stress the role of firms and entire industries in abandoning central locations for dispersed ones. Only those with strong ties to government or for whom face-to-face specialized interchanges matter remain tied to the core. This line of reasoning ignores the fact that workers are also urban actors and may make residential location decisions independent of firms. In this paper, I argue that one source of contemporary urban core stability and vitality is the commitments of certain groups of workers to work and live there. I explore this theme by looking at artists as a case study.

It is well-documented that merging banks make adjustments in post-merger bankbranch density. Mergers are usually accompanied by substantial entry and exit. Thesephenomena contradict a widely-used assumption of merger prediction: product qualityand entry are exogenous and are constant pre- and post-merger. This paper aims todevelop a methodology of merger analysis that incorporates the impact of mergers onproduct quality and entry. To avoid multiple equilibria, I estimate the post-mergerpatterns of product quality and entry by exploiting the historical data on bank mergers.Combining them with the estimates of demand and supply, I simulate the post-mergerequilibria of thirteen cases of bank mergers. Most of the predicted post-merger branchdensities and market shares of merging institutions are closer to the actual outcomesthan the widely used sum of pre-merger branch densities and market shares of mergingbanks respectively, which tend to overestimate post-merger branch densities and marketshares for large banks. There are two main ndings on post-merger patterns. First, areduction in the branch density of merging banks is strongly associated with the presenceof highly overlapped pre-merger bank branch networks or large pre-merger market sharesof merging banks. Second, new entrants tend to arise in counties where the total countyincome is high or the deposits of the acquirers are large.

We test whether the effect of English proficiency differs between Hispanic and non-Hispanic immigrants. Using 2000 US Census microdata on immigrants who arrived before age 15, we relate labor market, education, marriage, fertility, and location of residence variables to their age at arrival in the US, and in particular whether that age fell within the "critical period" of language acquisition. We interpret the observed difference in outcomes between childhood immigrants who arrive during the critical period and those who arrive later (adjusted for non-language-related age-at-arrival effects using childhood immigrants from English-speaking countries) as an effect of English-language skills and construct an instrumental variable for English-language skills. We find that both Hispanics and non-Hispanics exhibit lower English proficiency if they arrive after the critical period, but this drop in English proficiency is larger for Hispanics. The effect of English proficiency on earnings and education is nevertheless quite similar across groups, while some differences are seen for marriage, fertility, and location of residence outcomes. In particular, although higher English proficiency reduces (for both groups) the number of children and the propensity to be married, marry someone with the same birthplace or origin, and live in an "ethnic enclave," these effects are smaller for Hispanics.

We use panel data from El Salvador to investigate the intra-household allocation of labor as a risk-coping strategy. We show that adverse agricultural productivity shocks primarily increased male migration to the US with much smaller effects on female migration. This is consistent with the observation that the bulk of households allocated no women to the agricultural sector. These shocks also increased the number of hours that the household devoted to agricultural activities. These results do not contradict each other if one considers the possibility that the shocks had non-monotonic effects on shadow wages during the survey period. In contrast, damage sustained from the 2001 earthquakes exclusively stunted female migration. We argue that the reasons for this were that the earthquakes increased the demand for home production and that most men in our data are not engaged in domestic production at all.

Over the last three decades, a large number of immigrantshave arrived in the United States. Utilizing datafrom the Immigration and Naturalization Services (currentlydistributed through the Department of HomelandSecurity), this paper analyzes the changing patterns ofimmigration, especially its gender dynamics. The resultssuggest that not only has immigration become morefeminized but also the idea of an average immigrant,on whose behalf specific policies could be formulated,may have become less useful. By analyzing the differencesin home-ownership patterns among the foreign-bornpopulation, especially from a gendered perspective,the paper concludes that policy-making, particularlywhere housing is concerned, may have to become moreconcerned with local context and population subgroups.Keywords: Immigration, Gender, and Housing

This paper examines the endogenous interaction between the rise in female labor force par-ticipation and changes in both the method and mode of production that occurred during theearly part of the 20th century. Within a dynamic general equilibrium framework, an exoge-nous expansion in the skill level of the population induces an organizational change at the rmlevel and a redirection of investment towards new technologies that complement the skills ofthe emerging workforce. In addition to allowing for a change in the method of production ina market with directed technical change, a framework is developed to explicitly examine thetransitional dynamics as skilled workers become relatively abundant. The rise in the skill levelexplains the rise in female labor force participation, the increase in women?s wages and thedecline of the clerical wage relative to manufacturing.

Strategic interaction among local governments is a major concern in federal systems. In the case of welfare, lawmakers fear that states may engage in a race to the bottom that results in lower than optimal benefit levels nationwide. A prerequisite for this problem is that interstate differences in welfare do actually induce migration. This paper re-examines that question. I draw on recent literature for modeling migration decisions in order to estimate a conditional logit model. Identification exploits differences in benefit eligibility among families considering the same state. Contributions to the literature include a choice set of all fifty states,an explicit measure of distance and the use of variation due to states differing treatment of family size. I find that welfare benefits do encourage migration, but that the effect is smaller than estimates in previous studies. In fact, analysis of my results suggest that the race to the bottom may not be a serious concern.

Household investment leads nonresidential business fixed investment over the U.S. business cycle. Because real business cycle theory has not been able to account for this observation, it represents a potent challenge to the view that transitory productivity disturbances are the main source of aggregate fluctuations. This paper reconciles RBC theory with the investment dynamics by extending the traditional home production model to make household capital complementary to business capital and labor in market production. Empirical evidence suggesting that household capital is a complementary input in market production is also presented.

Why does the gender gap in earnings increase over women and men’s life course? Why are mothers penalized in the labor market, whereas fathers are rewarded? Most studies have answered these questions by focusing on the devaluation of women’s work and on the dilemmas that mothers face in negotiating competing demands of work and families. In contrast, I focus on patterns of gender-linked advantages for men in work and families. I analyze fathers’ labor market outcomes by drawing on data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and the 1970 to 2000 U.S. Censuses. I argue that gender structures mothers and fathers’ experiences in work and families and reduces women’s long-term occupational prospects and possibilities for economic independence while increasing men’s. I find that gender intersects with race, class, and occupational status and leads to a larger fatherhood wage premium for relatively advantaged men (married, whites, professionals, or the college educated). For married white men, one child is associated with a $7,300 increase in annual earnings. For married black men, one child is associated with a $3,100 increase in annual earnings. Although married white men earn a premium for each additional child, married black men pay a penalty for having more than two children. Married white men also spend more time at work on the birth of a child, whereas married black men do not. These outcomes remain robust in fixed effects and instrumental variable models. They likely reflect the gender division of labor as well as employers’ preferential treatment of fathers over childless men. Over the past three decades married white men have experienced a significant reduction in their fatherhood earnings premium. Married black men have not experienced any change in the small premium that they earn for having one and two children, and they have experienced an increase in the penalty that they pay for having a third child. The rise of racial inequality between married white and black fathers parallels the erosion of black men’s employment stability. As gender inequality between mothers and fathers subsided over the past thirty years, racial inequality among married fathers has increased.

The last 10 years have seen a sudden rise in interest in the use of GeographicalInformation Systems (GIS) in historical research. This has led to a fi eld that has become knownas historical GIS. This development started in the more quantitative ends of the discipline buthas spread to encompass qualitative research as well. Interest in historical GIS is not restricted toresearchers who would previously have regarded themselves as historical geographers, but has infact led to an increased awareness of the importance of geography from across the discipline ofhistory. This paper introduces historical GIS and critically evaluates how it is affecting the practiceof historical geography.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to provide long-run annual series of the value of the consumerbundle and related variables.Design/methodology/approach Benchmark data are assembled for each of the variables.Interpolative techniques are used to obtain values for missing years.Findings Continuous annual series for 1900-2004 are developed for value of the consumer bundle,number of consumer units, and average size of the consumer unit. Behavior of the series over time isconsistent with what economic and demographic experience would suggest.Originality/value Generation of long-run series as extensions of aggregate-type data in the Consumer Expenditure Survey of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.