The effect of a law, whether it be through legislatures or courts, is often difficult to identify given unintended consequences that arise. One example is the seminal rulingof Tarasoff v. Regents that enacted a duty that required mental health providers to warn potential victims of any real threat to life made by a patient. Using a fixed effects model and exploiting the variation in the timing and style of duty to warn laws across states, I find that mandatory duty to warn laws cause an increase in homicides of 5%. These results are robust to model specifications, falsification tests, and help to clarify the true effect of state duty to warn laws. Another is the ruling in Chevron v. Natural Resources Defense Council. Previous research has found both theoretically and empirically that Chevron favors agencies and their interpretation of statutes, but the magnitude of Chevron's impact remains unclear due to possible selection issues biasing the post- Chevron world. I account for the possibility that incentives change both to the challenger of an agency and the agency itself post- Chevron by estimating a break in the trend of agency deference on the date Chevron was decided. This allows me to exploit the exogenous cases that were pending when Chevron was decided while still employing the full sample of rulings. Both parametric and nonparametric specifications of the trend in agency deference suggest thatChevron increased agency deference by about 20 percentage points meaning that agency will win a challenge around 80% of the time. The third law on which I focus deals with an organized criminal firm's ability to extract monopoly rents from victim firms. Using a U.S. state panel and data on federal racketeering cases charged, I find that all else equal, a 0.1 percentage point increase in the amount of non-English speakers in a state will increase the expected number of racketeering cases per state per year by 0.8. This is weakly supported by the fact that states with fewer small businesses, and thus a higher probability of earning monopoly rents, experience less racketeering activity.

Older adults in Southeast Michigan are more likely to be women. The male and female ratios of the population are roughly equal through youth and middle adulthood, but a gender imbalance develops with increasing age. The explanation for the gender imbalance later in life, of course, is that in general, older men suffer from higher mortality rates than their female counterparts. Because of the gender imbalance between males and females over the age of 65, women are more likely to be widowed. Further, because the imbalance increases with age, the rate of widowhood among women increases as they get older. The greater level of widowhood for women means that older women are more likely to live alone than older men, and therefore to be more at risk of insufficient social and physical support. Older women are also more likely to be financially disadvantaged when their spouses die. Women of earlier generations tended to have lower levels of education, were more likely to be homemakers or to be employed in lower-paid jobs with fewer retirement benefits, and therefore depend upon the retirement income of their spouses more than men do. For this reason, the loss of a spouse later in life has a greater potential to negatively affect the income of women. Gender differences in poverty, for the most part, show that women are at a distinct disadvantage to men. Some women are twice as likely to live in poverty than their male counterparts, such as those age 65 to 74 in Monroe, Oakland, and Washtenaw Counties, and those age 75 and above in Monroe, Oakland, and St. Clair Counties.

Although collegiate attainment rates have risen in many developed and developing countries over the last three decades, they have remained essentially flat in the United States over the same period. In this chapter, we distinguish various models of degree attainment in the general context of theoretical and empirical specifications of educational attainment. To explain collegiate degree attainment, we consider the roles of student demand, the supply side of the postsecondary education market,and the role of public support indetermining outcomes. Although the study of college degree attainment has traditionally focused on demand-side determinants of attainment, including how students finance college attainment and academic preparation, we present here the evidence that supply-side determinants including the level of public subsidies and the associated stratification among colleges and universities a real so important determinants of degree attainment. Review of this evidence and research suggests a number of unexplored areas for economic research related to college choice, in-college attainment,and the supply-side determinants of stratification and resources per student.

This analysis examines whether the legalization of abortion changed high school graduation rates among the children selected into birth. Unless women in all socio-economic circumstances sought abortions to the same extent, increased use of abortion must have changed the distribution of child development inputs. I find that higher abortion ratios are associated with higher graduation rates for black males, but not other demographic groups. In a pooled analysis, I find that abortion has a significant negative impact on graduation rates. Theeffect disappears when I control for ethnicity. The cohorts born between 1965 and 1979 contained falling shares of whites, who have relatively high graduation rates. Regression results indicate abortion ratios are linked with the fertility differences between ethnicities, which suggests this is a channel of influence. Overall, the relationship between abortion exposure and educational attainment is small. A standard deviation change in abortionmight move the national graduation rate by less than three-tenths of a percentage point.

In this paper, I will discuss the history of American migrants in Mexico, the Americans that are currently residing in Mexico (with a special emphasis on retirees), and, in general, the way that this is part ofa more globally connected world. The migration of skilled professionals who leave a country out of free choice is not as commonly discussed. What drives those who are already "comfortable" to pursue life in a developing country? And, given their numerous and historie presence in various times throughout Mexican history, what is the future of Americans in Mexico?

Americans have always been viewed, both by themselves and by others, as a migrant society. However, migration rates have reached record lows: only 1.6% of Americans moved from onestate to another in 2009, and only 3.7% moved from one county to another. This research conducts a decomposition of the change in migration rates between 1999 and 2009 usingdata from the Current Population Survey. The analysis concludes that about 63% of the decline in migration rates between 1999 and 2009 can be attributed to the direct effects of the economic crisis that began in 2007, and another 17% of the decline can be attributed to demographic changes (e.g. the aging of the population) but that the remaining 20% of the decrease in migration is due to a decline in migration behavior, or increased rootedness,that applies to all demographic categories. The discussion focuses on the implications of the universal, or secular, rise in rootedness for migration studies.

Using a quasi-maximum likelihood Poisson estimator with fixed effects, this paper tests a theory presented in Rubin (1973) that organized criminal firms extract monopoly rentsfrom victim firms that gain monopoly power through the offering of goods and services in a non native language. Using a U.S. state panel and data on federal racketeering cases charged and convicted, I find that all else equal, a 0.1 percentage point increase in the amount of non-English speakers in a state will increase the expected number ofracketeering cases per state per year by 1.8. This is supported by the fact that states with fewer small businesses, and thus a higher probability of earning monopoly rents, experience less racketeering activity.

In this paper we use a recently developed measure, the Elder Economic Security Standard Index, or Elder Index 1, to evaluate the economic security of Michigan residents age 65 and older. The Elder Index benchmarks the actual costs of living for older adults, taking into account expenses for housing, food, transportation, health care, and other necessities at a basic standard of living. Our analysis shows that Michigan seniors face a much more widespread risk of financial hardship than previously understood. When gauged by Elder Index thresholds, the incomes of more than one of every three seniors in Michigan are too low to meet their basic needs, even with the assumption of good health and moderate health care costs. This is not a phenomenon limited to blighted urban areas or desolate rural areas; in even our most affluent counties, at least one in every four people age 65 and older cannot make ends meet. This widespread economic struggle faced by Michigan seniors is fairly hidden from public sight, making it an invisible poverty that takes its toll on older individuals, their families and caregivers and the community at large.

Social scientists and historians regularly claim that American authorities coerced 500,000 persons of Mexican origin to return to Mexico during the Depression. Using microdata samples from the U.S. Census, we show that figures of this magnitude cannot be sustained, finding instead that about 360,000 persons permanently repatriated between 1930 and 1940. We also find that a large proportion of immigrant Mexican repatriates were young men known to follow a pattern of circular migration. We develop a new approach to estimate the excess level of return prompted by special financial assistance, coercion, or high levels of deportation. By contrasting Mexican and French-Canadian repatriation and correcting for mortality, we conclude that the outer bound for excessive return is about 246,000, a figure still likely to be too high given the age-sex structure of the Mexican immigrant population.

This paper probes the conditions under which we might expect an entrepreneurial middle class of independent shopkeepers, merchants, professionals, and small manufacturers to expand or decline with capitalist development. We highlight the predictions offered by structural and Marxist accounts of middle class formation and apply them critically to four cases, including the early American Republic, industrializing England, Tsarist Russia, and the U.S. South during the antebellumpostbellum transition. Our empirical analyses and review of the historical literature suggest that the exogenous imposition of capitalist institutions often fails to propel entry into entrepreneurial activity and may even backfire, as cooptation or resentment among traditional elites generates barriers to small business proprietorship. When middling entrepreneurs exhibit greater agency with respect to the creation of capitalist institutions, their prospects tend to improve but the ability of scholars to draw causal linkages between structural change and the middle class are impaired, owing to problems of endogeneity. Paralleling institutional studies of organizations, the paper also underscores the importance of myth and ceremony over mere numerical prevalence in the making of an entrepreneurial middle class.

Strong public support and extensive research show- ing the value of high-quality early childhood edu- cation and care (ECEC) are driving demand for the expansion of ECEC services across the United States. However, persistent difficulties with recruiting and retaining qualified workers—including workers with the linguistic and cultural competence skills to provide quality services to the nation’s diverse young-child population—threaten to short-circuit efforts to better support the healthy development and well-being of young children across the country. More than 100,000 ECEC workers left the field during the COVID-19 pandemic, but many of the most acute challenges predate the public-health crisis, includ- ing shrinking teacher pipelines, high turnover, and low pay.

Womens earnings, employment, and commutes have generally lagged mens. Geographers emphasize the effects of womens gender roles on their spatial entrapment as limiting their job opportunities and labor market status. This research methodologically advances spatial entrapment research by utilizing a national model of commuting with spatial fixed effects to make more accurate predictions and generalizations. Second, this research found that a control group of same-sex partners allows for more direct isolation and measurement of the gender role effect on womens commutes. This research concluded that womens gender roles are negatively affecting their commuting range and, therefore, their labor market status.

Just under 10% of Michigans independent older adults fall below the federal poverty threshold, but 37% fall below the Elder Economic Security Standard Index. This means that more than 1 in 3 Michigan seniors struggle to make ends meet each month. Furthermore, elder economic insecurity is widespread across the state, with over 25% falling below the Elder Index even in Michigans most affluent counties. The independent adults age 65+ most likely to face economic insecurity are women, African Americans, renters, those who live alone, the oldest of the old, those who rely heavily on Social Security benefits to survive, and those who lack private pensions and retirement investments.

The resolution of the language questionwhether tomaintain the mother tongue, shift to the mainstreamlanguage, or try to maintain two or more languages in thefamilycreates significant psychological complications andlinguistic reflections. Methods of sourcing these challengesvary, but the most effective data source to date is the theIntegrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS) data set. Ithelps to address the quantitative part of this research.Findings suggest that weak tendencies toward languagerevitalization could be explained by the influx of Russian-speaking immigrants to the United States between 1990 and2000, when opportunities for Russians/Russian speakers tocommunicate in their native language sharply increased.However, in the big picture, this occurrence did not reversethe continuing shift from Russian to English. Multivariateanalysis suggests that the strongest effects are related tolinguistic isolation and the number of generations livingwithin the same household, both of which tend to bepositively associated with multilingualism.

The goal of personalization is to deliver information that is relevant to an individual or a group of individuals in the most appropriate format and layout. In the OLAP context personalization is quite beneficial, because queries can be very complex and they may return huge amounts of data. Aimed at making the users experience with OLAP as plain as possible, in this paper we propose a proactive approach that couples an MDX-based language for expressing OLAP preferences to a mining technique for automatically deriving preferences. First, the log of past MDX queries issued by that user is mined to extract a set of association rules that relate sets of frequent query fragments; then, given a specific query, a subset of pertinent and effective rules is selected; finally, the selected rules are translated into a preference that is used to annotate the users query. A set of experimental results proves the effectiveness and efficiency of our approach.

Explorations in New Cinema History brings together cutting-edge research by the leading scholars in the field to identify new approaches to writing and understanding the social and cultural history of cinema, focusing on cinemas audiences, the experience of cinema, and the cinema as a site of social and cultural exchange.