Based on harmonized and detailed occupation titles and making use of measures that do not require pair-wise comparisons among demographic groups, this paper shows that the occupational segregation of Black women dramatically declined from 1940 to 1980 (especially in the 1960s and 1970s), it slightly decreased from 1980 to 2000, and it remained stagnated in the fi rst decade of the 21st century. To assess the reduction in segregation, this paper extends recent measures that penalize the concentration of Black women in low-paid jobs and finds that the integration process slightly reversed after 2000. Regarding the role that education has played, this study highlights that only from 1990 onward, Black women with either some college or university degrees have lower segregation (as compared with their peers) than those with lower education. Nevertheless, in 2010, Black women with university degrees still tend to concentrate in occupations that have wages below the average wage of occupations that high-skilled workers fill.

One common proposition in welfare state literature is that programs financed through dedicated payroll taxes tend to have durable sources of revenue. I examine American unemployment insurance (UI) as an example of a self-financed social insurance program whose benefits have been dismantled over time because of an inability to maintain a constant base of revenue going against the received wisdom in the literature. I first examine the long run decline in state UI finances and conclude that changes in UI taxes, rather than UI benefit generosity or economic conditions, have been associated with the largest declines in state finances. In particular, states are subjecting a declining proportion of workers wages to UI taxes. In the second part of the paper, I examine why more states have not pursued reforms to strengthen UI finances, specifically indexing their UI taxes to growth in average wages to maintain a constant wage base. I find that opponents of more generous UI benefits have generally succeeded in preventing indexation, thus constricting UI finances and gradually retrenching benefits over time. My findings have implications for those seeking to improve UI solvency and for the study of welfare state retrenchment more generally.

Using the American Community Surveys of 2009 and 2010, I examine the wages of immigrants compared to natives among engineering workers. Among workers in engineering occupations, immigrants are the best and brightest thanks to their high education level, enjoying a wage distribution shifted to the right of the native distribution. Among workers with an engineering degree, however, immigrants under perform natives, despite somewhat higher education. The gap is particularly large in the lower tail, where immigrants work in occupations not commensurate with their education. In the upper tail, immigrants fail to be promoted out of technical occupations to management, handicapped by imperfect English and their under representation among older age groups. In both samples, immigrants from the highest income countries are the best and brightest workers.

Immigration is a major component of population change for countries across Europe. However, questions remain about where immigrants go after they arrive in a new country. What are the patterns of internal migration of minorities (immigrants and their descendants), and what are the causes and implications of these flows? Migration within a nation state is a powerful force, redistributing the population and altering the demographic, social and economic composition of regions, cities and neighbourhoods. Yet relatively little is known about the significance of ethnicity in migration processes, or how population movement contributes to immigrant and ethnic integration. Minority internal migration is an emerging field of academic interest in many European countries in the context of high levels of immigration and increased political interest in inter-ethnic relations and place-based policies. This book brings together experts in the fields of migration, ethnicity and diversity from across Europe to examine patterns of residential mobility of minorities, and to synthesise key themes, theories and methods. The analyses presented make important contributions to theories of migration and minority integration and may inform policies that aim to respond to local population change and increasing diversity. The conclusions of the book form an agenda for future research on minority and immigrant internal migration in developed societies.

This paper adds to the debate on the effect of immigration on native wages in the United States over the past 50 years by critiquing a prominent study in this field. The debate on this topic is an old one with a large body of literature behind it through which researchers have argued the merits and pitfalls of different methods of econometric analysis. One of the most influential studies of the past two decades, Borjas (2003), divides the national labor force into skill groups based on a combination of education and experience. The effects of immigration on native male wages are then analyzed using these cells as the unit of analysis for a fixed effects model spanning 1960 to 2000. The study shows a strong negative effect of immigration on native wages, earnings, and time worked along the entirety of the skill spectrum. However, the partial equilibrium model of Borjas (2003) cannot account for dramatic shifts in labor demand taking place in the US during this time period. To illustrate this, I replicate the model and analyze its results for another, simultaneous labor supply shock taking place, that is the influx of women into the US labor force. I frame this analysis as a search for omitted variable bias in the original model. I first insert data from the 2010 US Census and then a variable for the share of women in each skill cell. As expected, the results of this analysis do not show omitted variable bias in the model. Yet a close comparison of the differences in the entrance of women and immigrants into the labor market over the past 50 years, and the resulting differences in the correlation with native male wages, exposes weaknesses in the model of Borjas (2003) that explain why the results of that study show such a dramatic wage effect of immigration.

Almost half of postsecondary students are currently enrolled in community colleges. Theseinstitutions imply that even amongst students with the same degree outcome there is consid-erable heterogeneity in the path taken to get there. I estimate the life-cycle private and socialreturns to the di erent postsecondary paths and sequential decisions made by the students usingdata from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79). My approach highlightsboth the bene ts and the costs of di erent postsecondary choices, as well as taking accountof the fact that wage premia are not constant over the life-cycle. I nd positive, signi cantsocial and private returns for most postsecondary paths and decisions. Signi cantly lower op-portunity and direct costs for paths that involve community college make the internal returnsto these paths high. Even for paths that lead to the same nal degree, returns and presentvalues are di erent due to di erent costs and earnings over the life-cycle. I also analyze thedi erent programs and majors o ered by community colleges separately. For this, I supplementthe analysis in the NLSY79 with additional data from the Beginning Postsecondary StudentsSurvey (BPS), the Census, and the Current Population Survey (CPS). I estimate high returns toscience, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) majors, business, and health majorsat community college as compared to other majors. I nd that both occupational and academicassociate's degrees give signi cant returns to men and women.

Fertility choices depend not only on the surrounding culture but also on economic incentives, which have important consequences for inequality, education and sustainability. This book outlines parallels between demographic development and economic outcomes, explaining how fertility, growth and inequality are related. It provides a set of general equilibrium models where households choose their number of children, analysed in four domains. First, inequality is particularly damaging for growth as human capital is kept low by the mass of grown-up children stemming from poor families. Second, the cost of education can be an important determining factor on fertility. Third, fertility is sometimes viewed as a strategic variable in the power struggle between different cultural, ethnic and religious groups. Finally, fertility might be affected by policies targeted at other objectives. Incorporating new findings with the discussion of education policy and sustainability this book is a significant addition to the literature on growth.

This article describes a new approach for analyzing data within national historical geographic information system databases that can be used to explore long-term trends in landscape evolution. The methodology is based on clustering together areas with similar demographic characteristics to define urban agglomerations whose territorial extents and populations vary over time. The resulting database can be used in a wide range of ways that allow the empirical study of urban growth and urban sprawl. The article is based on data for England and Wales but given the increasing availability of national historical geographic information system databases for countries around the world, the approach could be replicated for a wide range of different places.

he U.S. Census reports that around 46 million or one in seven residents live in poverty today. However, the very term “poverty” continues to evoke debates on what it means to be poor. Ideological, political, and methodological tensions make it extremely challenging to reach a consensus on the most appropriate way to measure poverty in a given society. Although poverty is commonly described in uni-dimensional or monetary terms, many scholars have argued that poverty is more aptly understood as a constellation of deprivations -- a multi-dimensional concept. Different measures unavoidably generate different results, and the extent of poverty is, thus, dependent on the measure used to quantify the number of poor in a given society. In order to explore trends in poverty and inequality, one must be clear about how poverty is defined, and what indicators might best help capture the dimensions within the definitional framework. A careful consideration of various approaches to conceptualizing and measuring poverty can also provide a clearer understanding of the extent of poverty and the characteristics of households experiencing poverty, without . . .

Can shifts in output mix or technologies attenuate the impact of immigration on wages? We explore this using immigration-induced changes in relative labor supply at the county level in US Censuses of Agriculture in early 20th century. An increase in labor supply induced a shift away from capital-intensive crops and a reduction in farm size. Crop mix adjustments were more likely in counties less specialized in a given crop while adjustments in technological and organization changes were more marked in the rest. Suggestive evidence indicates that crop mix adjustments, but not organizational changes, were sufficient to limit wage impacts.

This chapter provides commentary on the causes and consequences of having a majority white and female teaching force in a diverse school system, as well as strategies to improve diversity, equity, and inclusion among P-12 teachers and students. The chapter also addresses the key reason why Black males are underrepresented in the U.S. teaching force.

How does immigration affect natives local wages? A vast literature considers this, much of it focused on Mexican immigration to the United States. Prior work emphasizes the importance of instrumenting for immigrant destinations, the key role of experience-skill cells, and the potential for spillovers to national markets. I build on these, using the Mexican ’Tequila Crisis’ of the mid-1990s as an exogenous shock to immigration. Instrumentation thus includes both a time dimension for the shock period, plus a destination dimension as in prior work. The 1.5% immigration shock of the Tequila Crisis lowered the wages of young low skilled US natives by 1 to 1.5 percent. It also prompted interstate labor reallocation. The share of low skilled workers is estimated to decrease by 2 percentage points as a result of the shock. This explains why within five years, national markets adjust, leaving no evidence of differential spatial impact.

Chaldeans are Iraqi Catholics with a long history of emigration. As a group, Chaldeans own most of the full-service grocery stores, along with other business holdings throughout the Detroit metropolitan region. This investigation evaluates how the Chaldean family provides social capital for sponsoring high rates of self-employment. As an innovation over previous research, this project evaluates connective patriarchy and patrilineal familism as a supplier of entrepreneurs. By specifying cultural obligations between family members, this research differs from other case studies by recognizing the distinctive family structure of the Near East region. The article provides a nuanced analysis of family cooperation not fully exploited in the ethnic economy literature. One such prospect is familism within the extended family. The authors' approach triangulates ethnographic and life history data with census information to better understand how family shapes business ownership.

This paper investigates the effect of local immigration enforcement regimes on the migration decisions of the foreign born. Specifically, the analysis uses individual level American Community Survey data to examine the effect of recent 287(g) agreements which allow state and local law enforcement agencies to enforce Federal immigration law. The results suggest that one type of 287(g) agreement the controversial local task force model emphasizing street enforcement nearly doubles the propensity for the foreign-born to relocate within the United States. The largest effects are observed among non-citizens with college education, suggesting that aggressive enforcement policies may be missing their intended targets. No similar effect is found for the native born. After the extreme case of Maricopa County is excluded, there is no evidence that local enforcement causes the foreign-born to exit the United States or deters their entry from abroad. Rather, 287(g) task force agreements encourage the foreign born to move to a new Census division or region within the United States.

Architecture is the art and science of designing which involves the manipulation of space, materials, program and other elements in order to achieve an end which is aesthetic, functional and sustainable. In the past, when the building envelope was the main element man used to protect himself from a harsh climate, he had to depend on passive energy which involves the use of natural energy sources for environmental, healthy, and economical reasons in our buildings. Traditional architecture, in Jordan, represents a living witness for the suitability of this architecture to the local environment, which incorporated the essence of sustainable architecture. The current study is aimed at investigating the elements of sustainability within the Jordanian traditional buildings based on the Jordan GBI rating key criteria, including: Energy Efficiency, indoor Environmental Quality, sustainable Site Planning and Management, material and Resources, water Efficiency, and innovation. Various typologies of six historical cases (i.e., Abu Jaber, Mouasher, Sukkar, Khatib, Toukan, and Qaqish buildings) in the old city of As-Salt were selected for this study, from a more comprehensive analysis. Findings of the study indicate uniqueness of the overall traditional As-Salt's architecture parallel with the current issues on sustainability. Furthermore, this As-Salt's traditional architecture is so beneficial as a case study for contemporary design, as a template for not only practices that are environmentally friendly, but also the process of sustainable thought.

Employment trends in the US were similar across age groups in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s: male employment rates declined or were flat at all ages and female employment rates increased or were flat at all ages. But employment trends diverged more recently, with employment rising at older ages and falling at younger ages, for both men and women. This paper seeks to explain this divergence. We estimate labor supply models for men and women, allowing differences in behavior across age groups. The results indicate that changes in the educational composition of the population and Social Security reforms can account for a modest proportion of the divergence. An additional factor for men was the increase in age at first marriage. However, much of the divergence remains unexplained.

Objective:We examine (1) whether black migration trends from the final few decades of the 20th century continued during the first decade of the 21st century, (2) whether the black southern migration stream continues to be demographically distinctive, and (3) whether incorporating subjective/motivational factors into our models advances our understanding of race and interregional migration. Methods: Using data from the 2000 to 2010 Current Population Surveys, we employ descriptive and inferential statistics to (1) map recent patterns of interregional migration in the United States by race and (2) estimate the effects of race, other sociodemographics, and subjective/motivational factors on people's propensity to migrate to the United States South. Results: We find that the rate of black migration to the South continues to exceed that of whites, and that black migrants differ from their white counterparts both demographically and motivationally. We also observe selected gender differences within the black southern migration stream. Conclusions: Our results underscore the need for more research on race, gender, and interregional migration in the United States. We suggest directions for such work, with particular focus on possibilities for further inquiry when 2010 census materials become more widely available.

This paper investigates the effect of local immigration regimes on the migration decisions of the foreign-born. Specifically, the analysis uses individual-level American Community Survey data to examine the effect of recent 287(g) agreements, which allow state and local law enforcement agencies to enforce Federal immigration law. The results suggest that one type of 287(g) agreement - the controversial local "task force" model emphasizing street enforcement - nearly doubles the propensity for the foreign-born to relocate within the United States. The largest effects are observed among non-citizens with at least some college education, suggesting that 287(g) policies may be missing their intended targets. No similar effect is found for the native-born. After the extreme case of Maricopa county is excluded, there is no evidence that local enforcement causes the foreign-born to exit the United States or deters their entry from abroad or from elsewhere in the United States. Rather, 287(g) task force agreements encourage the foreign-born to move to a new Census division or region within the United States.