This article examines the impact of conflict-induced population displacement on urban labour markets. Data from over 900 working-age individuals in Sudan indicates that long-term urban residents in conflict areas have a higher probability of being employed in skilled sectors relative to similar individuals in a non-conflict city and a lower likelihood of becoming unemployed. Recent arrivals to the conflict city, however, are much more likely to become unemployed. The data also show that young women entering the labour market during the conflict are less likely to be unemployed in the conflict city. This is consistent with a framework where war-induced population displacement from rural to urban areas generates demand for services provided by higher-skill workers and increased competition for low-skill jobs. The data show that household wealth of long-term residents decreases in conflict zones. Negative wealth effects are smaller for those more dependent on skilled sectors.

Transition throughout midlife can affect women’s perception of their health status. Multiple factors are potentially related to self-reported health status (SRHS), but it was not clear what factors are related to SRHS for midlife women, especially those with low income. This study examined factors related to SRHS in low income midlife women over time. A multi-step linear regression of longitudinal Medicaid Managed Care (MMC) data (n = 310) from July 2000 through November 2006 was used. Participants completed SRHS at initial (baseline) enrollment into MMC (T1), with a second assessment completed 11 to 23 months later for those retaining MMC eligibility (T2). Results indicated that disability and number of medical conditions were the factors most related to SRHS. SRHS scores differed significantly between non-disabled and disabled women. For disabled women, SRHS improved significantly between T1 and T2 (p < .001), but not for non-disabled women. Those with lower SRHS scores used community agencies more often. Further studies of SRHS and health-related factors are needed as SRHS is frequently an indicator of population health. Greater evidenced-based knowledge of SRHS in midlife women will inform preventive interventions for this population.

I examine the welfare effects of immigration on United States workers. I build a dynamic search and matching model in which immigrants and natives differ according to their outside options, separation rates, wealth holdings and skill composition. Immigration affects native-born welfare by i) altering the skill composition of the labor force, ii) lowering the expected hiring cost of firms, and iii) altering the rate of return on wealth. I demonstrate that the transition period, during which the economy adjusts to immigration, involves both higher returns to wealth and inferior labor market conditions in comparison to the long run steady state. Accounting for transition dynamics therefore shifts the welfare effects of immigration in favor of wealthy households at the expense of workers.

Using a nationally representative sample of college graduates, we estimate the post-collegiate labor market effects of fraternity and sorority membership during undergraduate tenure. We find that, after controlling for relevant factors, former sorority members' labor market outcomes are indistinguishable from those of other female college graduates. Former fraternity membership, however, appears to result in an increased likelihood of self-employment of about 10 percentage points and a sizable wage premium. Former fraternity members are indistinguishable from other male college graduates in terms of labor market status, historical unemployment , subjective beliefs of personal job security, job satisfaction, and satisfaction with earnings.

The Affordable Care Act (ACA) expanded eligibility for Medicaid to millions of low-income adults. While many expanding states implemented their expansion in 2014, five states and the District of Columbia expanded eligibility as early as 2010 by taking advantage of provisions in the ACA and Medicaid waivers. We used restricted data from the National Health Interview Survey to examine the impact of Californias Low Income Health Program, an early expansion program that began in 2011. Our study demonstrates that the county-by-county rollout of expanded public insurance coverage in California significantly increased coverage, by 7 percentage points, and significantly reduced the likelihood of any family out-of-pocket medical spending in the previous year, by 10 percentage points, among low-income adults.

In the past three decades, China has become a major contributor to science and technology. China now employs an increasingly large labor force of scientists and engineers at relatively high earnings and produces more science and engineering degrees than the United States at all levels, particularly bachelors. Chinas research and development expenditure has been rising. Research output in China has been sharply increasing since 2002, making China the second largest producer of scientific papers after the United States. The quality of research by Chinese scientists has also been improving steadily. However, Chinas rise in science also faces serious difficulties, partly attributable to its rigid, topdown administrative system, with allegations of scientific misconduct trending upward.

In these essays, I study the long-term effects of education policies and birth order on educational and labor market outcomes.

Women’s equal pay and sex segregation in the workforce has been a national discussion since the 1900s and is still relevant today. In 1963, the Federal Equal Pay Act was passed addressing this issue. This research examines state-level equal pay legislation that was passed prior to the federal law and how these laws affect sex segregation in the workforce. Using U.S. Census data from 1910 to 1960, sex segregation is analyzed using difference-in-difference regression analysis to determine the effects of state-level legislation on the D-index, concentration ratios, and the probability of being employed in a female-dominated or male-dominated job. Results from state-level analysis do not illustrate these laws having any effect on the D-index or concentration ratios, suggesting there are multiple counteracting effects. On an individual-level, state-level equal pay legislation reduces the likelihood of women being employed in female-dominated jobs. However, this legislation seems to have no effect on the likelihood of males being in a female-dominated job, or a male-dominated job.

Community colleges have become a practical educational option for undocumented students seeking an associate degree; thus reflecting the community college's very mission and purpose by providing access and affordability for these students. Specifically, undocumented Latino students are known to select community colleges due to their low tuition cost, proximity to their home, ease of access, etc. (Hernandez et al., 2010). This research study focused on undocumented Latino students for, as a leading scholar notes, "undocumented Latino students in higher education represent a resilient, determined, and inspirational group of high achievers who persevere and serve as a model for success" (Contreras, 2009, p. 610). The purpose of this study was to explore, through their own voices, the community college experiences of undocumented Latino students in Oregon. The Pew Hispanic Center found approximately 22% of the estimated 150,000 undocumented residents of Oregon stand to benefit from the DREAM Act (Passel & Cohn, 2011). A qualitative methodology was used in this study that provided a philosophical approach that allowed for meaning to emerge from the data. A Latino Critical Theory (LatCrit) perspective was used to frame this study. By approaching this research through the lens of LatCrit theory, the factors affecting marginalized undocumented students were highlighted. Working from a social justice perspective, the researcher’s goal was to provide information that may be useful to individual study participants, other undocumented students, and to the institutions that enroll these students. This study aimed to provide a means for addressing a social justice matter, the education of undocumented community college Latinos. It emphasizes the complex experiences and identities of Latinos, including language rights, immigration, citizenship, ethnicity, and gender (González & Portillos, 2007; Hernandez-Truyol, 1997; Montoya, 1994; Martinez, 1994). The intent of this study was not make far-reaching generalizations applicable to all community college undocumented Latino students, but to find themes that could support some of their experiences better that ultimately could lead to completion of an associate's degree. The study found that eight themes emerged as a result of the data analysis: 1. Support from Family and Community 2. Overcoming Obstacles 3. Cultural Informant 4. Finding Place: Formal and Informal Networks 5. Involvement 6. Barriers that Intersect 7. Identity as Undocumented 8. Resiliency This study attempted to define academic success of the eight participants by identifying the practices and support systems community colleges are using to help undocumented Latino students navigate their systems. Because of the focus on the lived experiences of undocumented Latino students, a qualitative approach referred to as testimonios was utilized for addressing the research questions, thus a platform for the voices of this marginalized population to expand the understanding of those who would hear them was created. This study revealed the conclusions that emerged from the testimonios as well as give recommendations for practice and further research. The study found that family support, creating community, understanding practitioners' roles, and having hope and resiliency aided in the persistence and retention of the participants. Freire (1970) stated in order to liberate and change the conditions in which individuals live, they must be empowered to do so. These eight participants narratives are a testament to what occurs to individuals if given the space to be empowered and change their conditions. The testimonios revealed their lived experiences as they completed an associate’s degree. Their testimonios challenged the narrative that undocumented people are a burden to society. Their voices challenge the dominant narrative that undocumented people do not have a voice.

Objectives Previous research has suggested that medical marijuana policies lead to reductions in suicide rates. In this study, we further investigate the association between these policies and within-state changes in suicide risk. Methods Data on suicide deaths (n = 662,993) from the National Vital Statistics System Multiple Cause of Death files were combined with living population data. Fixed-effects regression methods were employed to control for state differences in suicide rates and national and state secular trends. Analyses extended prior research that suggested a protective effect of medical marijuana policies by incorporating newer data and additional covariates. Results After adjustment for race/ethnicity, tobacco control policies, and other covariates, we found no association between medical marijuana policy and suicide risk in the population ages 15 and older (OR = 1.000; 95% CI: 0.956, 1.045; p = 0.98), among men overall (OR = 0.996; 95% CI: 0.951, 1.043; p = 0.87) or for any other age-by-sex groups. Conclusion We find no statistically significant association between medical marijuana policy and suicide risk. These results contradict prior analyses which did not control for race/ethnicity and certain state characteristics such as tobacco control policies. Failure to control for these factors in future analyses would likely bias estimates of the associations between medical marijuana policy and health outcomes.

This paper examines the factors that influence the likelihood of engaging in low-wage work during the recessionary and post-recessionary era. Using micro data from the 5-year 20082012 American Community Survey Estimates, we examine human capital, structural, and labor market characteristics that induce workers' participation into low-wage jobs and labor markets, as well as how these vary between and within various ethnic/racial, age, and gender groups, including Hispanic/Latino ethnic groups. We find that the factors influencing engagement in low-wage employment largely mirror those identified in pre-recessionary studies and analyses but that there is a differential effect across ethnicity, race, gender, and age that may lead to and lock specific groups of workers into low-wage employment. Using a post-estimation technique to generate predicted probabilities, we discuss how these factors influence a worker's likelihood to engage in low-wage employment across and within ethnic and racial populations, and the implications these present for contemporary scholarship, policy, and praxis.

Until 2002, the United States was the only advanced industrialized nation that failed to offer financial benefits to mothers taking employment leave to care for their newborn children. The first paid family leave policy (PFL) in the U.S. was implemented in California in 2004, followed by New Jerseys Family Leave Insurance, implemented in 2009. We study how New Jerseys PFL policy affected mothers labor outcomes. We examine the question: Did New Jerseys paid family leave policy decrease mothers connection to employment? We hypothesize that women who had access to this benefit were more likely and more prepared to return to work after the birth of a child as shown by their subsequent employment outcomes. This study compares labor outcomes of mothers of children under age one in New Jersey against: those New Jersey mothers with children ages three to five, Philadelphia mothers with a child under age one and all other states mothers with a child under age one. We utilized the American Community Survey years 2000 to 2013, via the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS) database. The American Community Survey data provided information on labor market outcomes for a large and nationally representative sample. This study found that during the post policy period the New Jersey treatment group of working mothers with a child under one year of age was more likely to be employed than the control group of New Jersey working mothers with a child age three to five.

English Proficiency on the Rise Among Latinos; U.S. Born are Driving Language Changesl

We consider a new source of racial disparities in test scores: African American students' disproportionate exposure to environmental toxins, and, in particular, lead. Using a unique individual-level dataset of children's preschool lead levels linked with future educational outcomes for children in Rhode Island, we document significant declines in racial disparities in child lead levels since 1997, due in part to state policies aimed at reducing lead hazards in homes. Exploiting the change in child lead levels as a result of the policy, we generate causal estimates of the impact of preschool lead levels on reading and math test scores through grade eight in an IV framework. We find that a 5 ug/dl increase in child lead levels (the threshold at which the CDC recommends intervention) reduces test scores by 49-74 percent of a standard deviation, depending on the specification. The effects are strongest in the lower tail of the test score distribution and do not fade over time. We calculate that the decline in racial disparities in lead explains between 37 and 76% of the decline in racial disparities in test scores witnessed over the past decade in RI.

Throughout history, immigrants have often been underrepresented in public policy creation. Unauthorized immigrants are uninvolved in political discourse due to their inability to affect political outcomes through voting, while immigrants in general might have problems effectively communicating their needs in the destination country's primary language. Ethnic and racial prejudices can also be a barrier. Because of this, how policies affect the migrant population might not be carefully considered. This dissertation works to address this by examining three different policies that have serious consequences on immigrants. The first essay uses a policy that further restricts the hiring of unauthorized immigrant to examine the effect on where migrants, both authorized and unauthorized, choose to live after job opportunities are reduced. The Legal Arizona Workers Act (LAWA), passed in 2007 and enacted in 2008, prohibits Arizona employers from hiring unauthorized immigrants. Even though the focal point of the law was unauthorized workers, the law could have affected other individuals. Legal workers could have moved to avoid complications from the law or to accommodate illegal immigrants in the household. In addition, the state-level law could have affected neighboring states. I find that though the target of the laws are unauthorized immigrants, likely authorized immigrants are affected as well, and that neighboring states are impacted by the migrants leaving Arizona. The second essay takes advantage of a policy that freed migrant workers from coercive contracts to see how the removal of constraints affects wages and work effort. In 1898 the United States annexed Hawai`i and incorporated it as a U.S. territory in 1900. The Organic Act establishing Hawai`i's territorial government terminated the coercive labor contracts of plantation workers in Hawai`i. I use plantation records of payments to workers to determine whether there were substantial changes in wages and days-worked-per-month in the months leading to and after the 14 June 1900 transition to territorial rule. The analysis reveals increases in wages paid to all types of plantation labor, but none as significant as the increase in wages of formerly contract workers. There was also a decrease in days-worked-per-month for contract workers. I then consider whether changes in wages were due to a break-down in monopsony power after all coercive contracts ended simultaneously or integration of the Hawai`i labor market with the U.S. West Coast labor market. The last essay is an exploration into the problems with effective communication that migrants often encounter. It looks at the effect of language access (essentially, translation services) policies on Medicaid take-up rates among Limited English Proficiency (LEP) migrants. I take advantage of state heterogeneity in language access laws to examine whether these efforts do indeed increase Medicaid take-up rates. I find that language access improves Medicaid take-up rates among likely LEP migrants without crowding out private health insurance. There is some variation in efficacy across states, with some evidence that California and New York are the main drivers of the increased take-up rates. Lastly, I find that even though many of these translation services primarily target Spanish-speakers, the laws might not be as helpful to Spanish-speaking migrants. This dissertation shows that it is necessary to create comprehensive policies that involve all members of society throughout the decision-making process to ensure no one becomes or remains disenfranchised.

Policy interventions that increase insurance coverage for infertility treatments may affect fertility trends, and ultimately, population age structures. However, such policies have ignored the overall impact of coverage on fertility. We examine short-term and long-term effects of increased insurance coverage for infertility on the timing of rest births and on womens total fertility rates. Our main contribution is to show that infertility mandates enacted in the United States during the 80s and 90s did not increase the total fertility rates of women by the end of their reproductive lives. We also show evidence that these mandates induced women to put o motherhood.

Market based reforms to China’s agricultural sector, between 1978 and 1984, marked the start of the reform era. The reforms were enormously successful, resulting in dramatic increases in both agricultural productivity and output. The first two chapters of this thesis are an empirical exploration of the consequences of the agricultural reforms for the growth of China’s non-agricultural sector and the pattern of Chinese urbanisation. The third chapter uses the interaction between differential rural income growth and the One Child Policy, to shed light on how declining family size has fuelled the latent demand for sex selective abortion in China and beyond. The first chapter explores the link between agricultural productivity and industrialisation in the context of reform era China. A classic literature argues that, at low levels of development, improvements in agricultural productivity can provide an important stimulus to the nonagricultural sector, however empirical evidence of this is limited. Using a natural experiment provided by China’s agricultural reforms, I show that higher agricultural productivity growth had a substantial positive causal effect on non-agricultural output. I use the predictions of a simple two sector model, which nests the possibility of linkages through demand externalities, the supply of capital, and the supply of labour, to provide additional results indicating that the linkages I observe appear to be driven primarily by increases in the supply of capital. In the second chapter, I ask how higher agricultural productivity affected China’s urbanisation. In 1978, at the time of the reforms, more than 80% of China’s population lived in the countryside. By 2011, fewer than 50% did. Whether agricultural productivity increases the pace of urbanisation is theoretically ambiguous, and depends on whether the effect of higher rural incomes is more than offset by the increased demand for urban goods. I show . . .

Recent years have seen an increasing amount of work by physicists on topics outside their traditional research domain, including geography. We explore the scope of this development, place it in a historical context dating back at least to statistical physics in the nineteenth century and trace the origins of more recent developments to the roots of computational science after World War II. Our primary purpose is not historical, however. Instead, we are concerned with understanding what geographers can learn from the many recent contributions by physicists to understanding spatiotemporal systems. Drawing on examples of work in this tradition by physicists, we argue that two apparently different modes of investigation are common: model-driven and data-driven approaches. The former is associated with complexity science, whereas the latter is more commonly associated with the fourth paradigm, more recently known as “big data.” Both modes share technical strengths and, more important, a capacity for generalization, which is absent from much work in geography. We argue that although some of this research lacks an appreciation of previous geographical contributions, when assessed critically, it nevertheless brings useful new perspectives, new methods, and new ideas to bear on topics central to geography, yet neglected in the discipline. We conclude with some suggestions for how geographers can build on these new approaches, both inside and outside the discipline.

We investigate how high-frequency variation in climatic conditions affects fertility outcomes. Specifically, we estimate the effects of ambient temperatures on state-by-month birth rates and infant health in the United States (c. 1931-2010). Unusual shifts in the distribution of daily mean temperatures for a given state and calendar month provide the identifying variation. Consistent with other research, we find high temperatures cause a decline in birth rates approximately 8 to 10 months later. However, we present novel evidence the initial decline is followed by an increase in births over the next few months (11, 12, and 13 months after exposure). Importantly, this temporal shift has a hidden cost in terms of worse health outcomes. Exposure to hot days in the third trimester leads to lower birth weight and higher rates of preterm delivery, and shifting conceptions from summer months to winter months exposes more children to summer heat during the critical third trimester the following year. Also, we investigate how the temperaturefertility relationship has changed over time, and consider the implications of our findings in the context of climate change.