This report examines comparative trends in receipt of public assistance and poverty rates between 1970 and 2014 in the United States, using data from the U.S. Census Bureau.1 It explores these trends by race/ethnicity, age structure, and among the five largest Latino national subgroups. Receipt of public assistance is defined by receiving any amount of one’s income in the previous year from public assistance funds or not.2 Poverty status is defined by living below the federal poverty line in the previous year or not.3 There was an overall decline in the percentage of people who received public assistance between 1970 and 2014, which coincided with an increase in poverty rates over that period. In 1970, 3.2% of the population received public assistance, which dropped to 1.6% in 2014. At the same time, about 12.9% of the population was living in poverty in 1970, which increased to 14.3% in 2014. These patterns suggest an inverse relation between . . .

Inclusionary zoning is an increasingly popular and controversial tool for creating affordable housing. More than 500 jurisdictions have inclusionary zoning ordinances. Despite the popularity of inclusionary programs nationwide, research on the subject is largely fragmented, and there is a real dearth of empirical research to support policymakers in their decision to implement inclusionary housing. Specifically, cities lack sufficient information about the most successful policy structures and the environment to which they are best suited. This study addresses that gap, exploring the extent to which more flexible inclusionary housing programs in California produce more affordable housing.

Californias nursing homes provide a major source of personal and medical care for the states most vulnerable residentsthe elderly and the disabled. By 2030 the states 65- and-over population will grow by 87 percent. The number of people requiring skilled nursing care could increase by 32,000, far outstripping current capacities. We find that there will be significant disparities in regional growth rates across racial/ethnic groups and in regions abilities to absorb higher numbers of patients. Specifically: The Bay Area and the Inland Empire have the largest discrepancies between existing nursing home capacity and projected demand in 2030; Los Angeles and Northern California (excluding the Bay Area) have the smallest. Regional growth rates in the 65-and-over population vary widely within racial/ethnic groups. For example, rates among Latinos range from 159 percent on the states Southern Border (Imperial and San Diego Counties) to 193 percent in the Inland Empire; among Asians they range from 93 percent in the Central Coast to 212 percent in Northern California (excluding the Bay Area). In order to meet the growing and changing demands for senior care at the statewide and regional levels, policymakers will need to address ways to increase nursing home capacity. These solutions must also include recruiting and training health workers who can provide effective, culturally competent care, whether in skilled nursing facilities or home- and community-based settings.

Recently, reverse rank queries have attracted significant research interest. They have real-life applicability, such as in marketing analysis and product placement. Reverse k-ranks queries return users (preferences) who favor a given product more than other people. This helps manufacturers find potential buyers even for an unpopular product. Similar to the cable television industry, which often bundles channels, manufacturers are also willing to offer several products for sale as one combined product for marketing purposes. Unfortunately, current reverse rank queries, including Reverse k-ranks queries, only consider one product. To address this limitation, we propose the aggregate reverse rank queries to find matching user preferences for a set of products. To resolve this query more efficiently, we propose the concept of pre-processing the preference set and determining its upper and lower bounds. Combining these bounds with the query set, we proposed and implemented the tree pruning method (TPM) and double-tree method (DTM). The theoretical analysis and experimental results demonstrated the efficacy of the proposed methods.

Methods for cleaning dirty data typically rely on additional information about the data, such as user-specified constraints that specify when a database is dirty. These constraints often involve domain restrictions and illegal value combinations. Traditionally, a database is considered clean if all constraints are satisfied. However, many real-world scenarios only have a dirty database available. In such a context, we adopt a dynamic notion of data quality, in which the data is clean if an error discovery algorithm does not find any errors. We introduce forbidden itemsets which capture unlikely value co-occurences in dirty data, and we derive properties of the lift measure to provide an efficient algorithm for mining low lift forbidden itemsets. We further introduce a repair method which guarantees that the repaired database does not contain any low lift forbidden itemsets. The algorithm uses nearest neighbour imputation to suggest possible repairs. Optional user interaction can easily be integrated into the proposed cleaning method. Evaluation on realworld data shows that errors are typically discovered with high precision, while the suggested repairs are of good quality and do not introduce new forbidden itemsets, as desired.

This study examined the association between geographic location (urban, rural, and tribal) and marital status on poverty among the Native American community. A sample of 5,110 Native Americans in the 2008-2010 American Community Survey were used for analyses. Results indicated that Native Americans were similar with the general population in their geographic location, marital status, and poverty. We found that the protective characteristics of marriage in the Native American community varied according to geographic location. We also discuss the impact this may have on the Native American community and what practitioners and policy makers should consider when working with the important but often overlooked population.

Neste artigo pretende-se responder a duas perguntas: Existem diferenças significativas na probabilidade de se enquadrar em ocupações de nível mais elevado entre os lusófonos africanos e brasileiros que trabalham no mercado português? Quanto dessa diferença pode ser mitigada caso os retornos aos atributos de ambos os imigrantes sejam igualados? Com base nas informações do Censo Demográfico português de 2001, disponíveis em IPUMS (2008), utilizou-se, para responder a primeira pergunta, uma classe de modelos não-lineares, conhecidos como Modelo Ordinal Generalizado, com resíduo corrigido por viés de seleção amostral (técnica de correção de Heckman). Para a segunda pergunta foram estimadas equações para os dois grupos de imigrantes e, em momento posterior, como exercício contrafactual, igualados os retornos (ou seja, os coeficientes) da equação de brasileiros com a equação de africanos, preservando suas diferenças de atributos. Os resultados revelaram que a probabilidade de enquadramento ocupacional numa posição mais elevada entre os brasileiros era, em média, 10% superior à dos africanos. Além do mais, se os africanos lusófonos possuíssem os retornos dos brasileiros, a probabilidade de ocuparem posições mais elementares no mercado de trabalho português reduziria em mais de 4%. O inverso aconteceria com os brasileiros. Se estes fossem tratados no mercado de trabalho como os africanos lusófonos, sua probabilidade de ocupar posições mais baixas aumentaria em aproximadamente 3%. Estes resultados condizem com alguns estudiosos sobre o tema, tais como Machado (2006) e Lages & Policarpo (2002) que creditam a discriminação dos africanos lusófonos frente aos brasileiros ao pensamento colonial, reorganizado e direcionado às populações imigrantes em Portugal. Os brasileiros, segundo Machado (2006), ocupam um lugar intermediário entre os africanos e portugueses.

OBJECTIVE Our research examined the prevalence of food insecurity among adults with self-reported diabetes and whether food insecurity was associated with cutting back ("scrimping") on prescribed medications because of financial constraints. METHODS We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of data from the 2011 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS). Adults completing this survey were considered to have diabetes if they reported current use of insulin or "diabetic pills" (n=3,242). Food insecurity was determined with a 10-item scale; respondents were categorized as food secure (FS), marginally food secure (MFS) or food insecure (FI). RESULTS Approximately one in six adults in NHIS with diabetes reported food insecurity (17.0%), and an additional 8.8% were marginally FS. An individual was considered to be scrimping on medications if he/she gave a "yes" response to at least one of four questions pertaining to reduced, delayed or avoided medication use. Overall, 18.9% of respondents with diabetes reported one or more type of medication scrimping: 11.7% of FS individuals, 27.7% of MFS individuals and 45.6% of FI individuals. In adjusted analyses, marginal food security and food insecurity remained strongly associated with scrimping. CONCLUSIONS One-quarter of adults with diabetes may have difficulty obtaining foods appropriate for a diabetic diet; a substantial number of these individuals also fail to obtain or take medications. Practitioners may miss either problem unless targeted questions are included in clinical encounters. Clinicians should consider referring FI and MFS diabetic patients to community food resources.

Decreasing rates of marriage and the delay of motherhood or decision to forsake childbearing altogether are emergent trends in the United States. Historically, shifts in family composition have always been important, yet the increase in the number of unmarried and childfree adults is rarely acknowledged by health researchers. Race and family type will be used to investigate the health of Black and White unmarried, childless women (SWANS), using intersectional theory, the Social Determinants of Health, and the Sojourner Model. The frequencies of poor health outcomes are analyzed to determine if family type influences health outcomes, and if so, does this differ by race. Using secondary data from the 2010-2013 Integrated Health Interview Series (IHIS) and binary logistic regression, results indicate that the main independent variables of race and family types interact to differentiate health outcomes. This work uncovers race as a master status for Black women. Black married childfree women have better health outcomes relative to Black SWANS, with the exception of self-rated health. Black married parents are less likely to report adverse health conditions than Black married childfree and SWANS. Among Whites, all family types are in poorer health, when compared to married parents. Notably, both Black and White SWANS experience the lowest rates of poor emotional health. These findings persist despite adjusting for demographic and socio-economic characteristics that are known to influence health. The analysis further underscores the importance of focusing on intra-racial variations in marriage and health and give added support to feminist arguments regarding the methodological and conceptual challenges to studying women who exist on the margins of society and Black women in general. Taken altogether, the results move toward an examination of health and family policies to identify areas for potential policy change and SWAN-advocacy.

This is a case study of a community youth engagement initiative that focuses on youth development, community building, and placemaking; the Initiative puts youth and the arts at its core. With six years of dedication from youth and adult partners alike, and tremendous progress made toward creating an inclusive and multifaceted arts and cultural center in East Palo Alto, this study provides valuable insights about fostering positive community youth engagement from the perspective of key stakeholders. This study seeks to share those insights with the field and to further elevate the voices of East Palo Alto youth as well as the community itself, a diverse city of color with a rich history of community empowerment and social justice.

This paper examines the impact of state-level educational investments in public education on aggregate state labor markets, specifically earnings and employment. Using data on K-12 educational spending, 8th grade cognitive test scores, and educational demographics of a states labor force, I observe whether these state-level investments are set so that the lifetime benefits of these investments are greater than the cost. Taking interstate migration into account, I separate the benefits from educational investment into benefits due to own-state investment and benefits due to other-state investment. By doing so I am able to identify whether or not educational investment spillovers exist between states. The preliminary results indicate that the earnings benefits associated with test scores and K-12 educational spending spill over into other states. Results also show that 8th grade NAEP test scores do not spillover onto other states earnings.

Family structure in the United States has shifted substantially over the last three decades, yet the causes and implications of these changes for the well-being of family members remains unclear. This paper exploits task-based shifts in demand as an exogenous shock to sex-specific wages to demonstrate the role of the relative female to male wage in the family and labor market outcomes of women. I show that increases in the relative wage lead to a decline in the likelihood of marriage for those on the margin of a first marriage, and present suggestive evidence that these effects are concentrated among less-desirable matches. A higher relative wage also causes women to increase their hours of work, reduce their dependence on a male earner, and increase the likelihood of taking guardianship over their children. These findings indicate that improvements in the relative wage have facilitated womens independence by reducing the monetary incentive for marriage, and can account for 20% of the decline in marriage between 1980 and 2010.

We use data from the Current Population Survey from 2007 and 2013 to investigate demographic differentials in unemployment during the Great Recession in the U.S. Although our analysis is primarily exploratory and descriptive, our major research objective is to illuminate the unemployment differential between the foreign born and the native born. The findings indicate that during the height of the Great Recession, the foreign born had higher unemployment rates than the native born. However, this differential is statistically explained by their observed characteristics, such as race/ethnicity, gender, age and education. With the net of those variables and a few other demographic covariates, foreign born workers as an overall group actually had somewhat lower chances of being unemployed than native born workers. This finding is discussed in terms of the selectivity of immigrant workers and the possibility that they are somewhat more immediately dependent on having a job. After breaking down the foreign born into major racial/ethnic groups, the results suggest that foreign-born blacks and foreign-born Hispanics are particularly selective with the net of their observed characteristics. The possible sources of such differentials by race/ethnicity and by gender are discussed.

I examine the effect of municipal provisions of clean water---installation of water filtration plants---on school enrollment and child labor in American cities from 1880 to 1920. Applying a difference-in-differences strategy which exploits variation of water filtration adoption across time and across cities, I find that municipal water filtration has a positive and statistically significant effect on school enrollment. Also, I find a negative effect on child labor, but it is not significant at conventional levels. These effects are most pronounced at ages 14 and 15, which map into the last years of elementary school and are beyond compulsory schooling age in some states. Additionally, I find that effects are larger for children who are exposed at an earlier age, can legally drop out of school, are from lower socioeconomic status families, or are female.

This is the introduction and summary to the seventh phase of an ongoing project on Social Security Programs and Retirement Around the World. The project compares the experiences of a dozen developed countries and uses differences in their retirement program provisions to explore the effect of SS on retirement and related questions. The first three phases of this project document that: 1) incentives for retirement from SS are strongly correlated with labor force participation rates across countries; 2) within countries, workers with stronger incentives to delay retirement are more likely to do so; and 3) changes to SS could have substantial effects on labor force participation and government finances. The fourth volume explores whether higher employment among older persons might increase youth unemployment and finds no link between the two. The fifth and sixth volumes focus on the disability insurance (DI) program, finding that changes in DI participation are more closely linked to DI reforms than to changes in health and that reducing access to DI would raise labor supply. This seventh phase of the project explores whether older people are healthy enough to work longer. We use two main methods to estimate the health capacity to work, asking how much older individuals today could work if they worked as much as those with the same mortality rate in the past or as younger individuals in similar health. Both methods suggest there is significant additional health capacity to work at older ages.

Economists have developed an extensive literature examining the relationships between inequality of outcomes and growth, but few research papers have investigated the relationship between inequality of opportunity and growth. That extensive literature finds both positive and negative effects of inequality on growth, as theory predicts. By contrast, inequality of opportunity should be a drag on growth, as it represents less than full utilization of potential resources. Using recently released data on intergenerational mobility in commuting zones within the United States, this paper investigates the relationship between intergenerational mobility measures (as indicators of inequality of opportunity) and economic growth and finds that local areas with higher intergenerational mobility display faster economic growth over the 2000–2013 and 2007–2013 periods. This is true when intergenerational mobility is measured in both relative and, especially, absolute terms. In the reverse direction, the paper provides suggestive evidence that faster growth enhances economic opportunity.

For 50 years, US policymakers and economists have searched for ways to slow the growth of spending on health care. One approach currently taken by 35 states is to restrict the supply of health care by requiring new and growing providers to show that they serve an economic need. Hospitals and certain other health providers must obtain a certificate of need (CON) from a state board before opening or expanding. I show that in a simple model where CON restricts supply, the effect of CON on spending depends on the price elasticity of market demand for health care. CON will work to restrain spending when demand is elastic; however, most estimates show the demand for health care to be quite inelastic. I therefore predict that CON will increase prices for health care without much reducing its use, leading to an increase in spending. Using data from the National Health Expenditure Accounts, I estimate that CON laws do not reduce spending by any major payer or for any major type of provider and that they increase spending on some types of health care.

Using National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent and Adult Health (Add Health) data, we examine the alcohol-use trajectories of monoracial Black youth and biracial Black-White, Black-Hispanic, and Black-American Indian youth to assess how their trajectories differ from the alcohol-use trajectories of White youth over time. The sample consists of 9421 adolescents and young adults who self-identified as White, Black, Black-American Indian, Black-Hispanic, or Black-White. Study hypotheses are tested using latent growth curve modeling. Results indicate that a catch-up effect exists, but only for Black-American Indians whose alcohol-use rates approach the higher rates of Whites at age 29. Black-American Indians face particularly high risk of problematic drinking over the life course. Additional research is needed to understand causal factors of alcohol-use among biracial individuals particularly Black-American Indians who may be at higher risk for alcohol misuse.

Massachusettss 2006 health reform legislation was intended to move the state to near-universal health insurance coverage and to improve access to affordable health care. Ten years on, a large body of research demonstrates sustained gains in coverage. But many vulnerable populations and communities in the state have high uninsurance rates, and among those with coverage, gaps in access and affordability persist.