Indonesia is known as a country that has the largest ethnic groups in the world with 1,128 ethnic groups as reported on the 2010 Population Census. Ethnic diversity is one of the important factors that determine the amount and distribution of the population in Indonesia. This study aimed to determine variations and patterns of fertility by ethnic groups in Indonesia and its association with their socioeconomic characteristics. By using the 2010 Population Census raw data that obtained from the IPUMS website, this study calculated the average number of children born alive born to ever married women aged 15-49. The results show a relationship between fertility and ethnic groups. Among fifteen major ethnic groups analyzed in this study, Batak ethnic has the highest fertility rate followed by Acehnese and Bantenese, while ever married Maduranese women have the lowest fertility rate. The high level of fertility in some of the major ethnic groups in Indonesia is associated with the desire to have many children, the low age at first marriage of women, and the existed perception that those with many children would get higher social value. Low level of education and rural residential areas also contribute to high fertility rates.

Under the Civil War pension act of 1862, Union Army widows were entitled to pensions; however, they lost these pensions if they remarried. Using a database compiled from widows' pension files, I estimate the effect this had on widows' remarriage decisions. I find that receiving a pension lowered the hazard rate of remarriage by 25 percent, which implies an increase in the median time to remarriage of 3.5 years. Among older women, the effect is greater. These results suggest that many Union Army widows faced highly unfavorable marriage prospects.

This paper examines the educational self-selection of immigrants to the United States across forty-two countries of origin and analyzes determinants of selectivity, including home-country gender status (as measured by the United Nations Gender Empowerment Measure [GEM]). Measuring educational self-selection, the study uses data from the 2006 American Community Survey and the 2000 and 2014 BarroLee Educational Attainment Measure to construct the Net Difference Index between immigrants and nonmigrants. It compares the educational attainment difference between immigrants and nonmigrants who remain in the home country and demonstrates that immigrants to the US are more educated than their home-country counterparts across all immigrant groups (positive selection). Regression results further indicate that higher gender inequality in the home country influences more highly educated women to migrate. The paper also confirms that higher migration costs and lower income inequality in the home country influence more highly educated individuals to migrate.

Zero waste and sustainable materials management (SMM) are two ways of reframing the process of waste management, by envisioning waste as potentially useful material. Detroit has taken a step towards SMM, implementing a city-wide curbside recycling program in 2014. While only 6.6% of the citys waste is currently recycled or composted, the other 93.4% is combusted in Detroits waste-to-energy facility (WTEF) or sent to landfills. Like other post-industrial cities with long-standing WTEFs, Detroits WTEF is located in a predominately non-white and lowincome community, and the facility has faced alleged odor and emissions violations. For Detroit to move forward with sustainable and just waste reduction and diversion strategies, it is necessary to understand its successes and challenges within waste management. This report for the East Michigan Environmental Action Council and the Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives characterized Detroits waste management system using stakeholder interviews, policy review, Sankey diagrams, and environmental justice spatial analysis to analyze opportunities for enhancing SMM in the city. We selected two case study cities that also have a WTEF, Baltimore and Minneapolis, to benchmark their progress with advancing SMM and provide best practices for Detroit. Interview participants mentioned several political, social, economic, procedural/technical, and environmental factors that can support or impede efforts to advance SMM. Based on these findings, in addition to the results of our Sankey diagrams and spatial analysis, we proposed a set of eight recommendations for Detroit to consider when adopting an SMM framework in the future. Ultimately, our project recommends the following actions for Detroit: (1) Collect more data on the citys waste stream; (2) continue community engagement efforts; (3) market waste as a material resource; (4) encourage the State of Michigan to enact more SMM legislation; (5) create a method of addressing continued air emissions violations in waste management facilities; (6) centralize sustainability efforts in Detroits new Office of Sustainability; (7) conduct a feasibility study regarding a differentiated waste management pricing structure; and (8) sustain long-term planning for SMM in Detroit. Despite our focus on Detroit, our findings also have policy implications and practical recommendations for other cities like Detroit that are struggling to advance a more sustainable and just waste management system.

Objective. The primary objectives of this study were to measure and compare health insurance coverage between nonelderly Puerto Rican adults in cohabiting same- sex relationships and their counterparts in cohabiting different- sex relationships. Methods. This study used data from the 2008– 2014 Puerto Rican Community Survey on nonelderly adults (18– 64 years) in cohabiting same- sex (n=274) and different- sex (n=58,128) relationships. Multinomial logistic regression models estimated differences in primary source of health insurance while controlling for key demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. Results. Compared with men in different- sex relationships, men in same- sex relationships were less likely to have employer- sponsored insurance (ESI). Women in same- sex relationships were less likely than others to have ESI, insurance purchased directly from an insurer, and public health insurance after controlling for socio- demographic factors. Conclusions. Employment- based discrimination and policy barriers may have prevented same- sex couples from enjoying the full benefits associated with marriage and cohabitation in Puerto Rico, including employer- sponsored health insurance.

Research on the economic impact of migration on hosts and the migrants themselves has tended to focus on the short term. This column traces the economic impact of population diversity in the US resulting from the Age of Mass Migration of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. High levels of population fractionalisation have had a strong, positive influence on economic development, while high levels of polarisation have undermined development. Despite a stronger effect on income levels in the first 30 years following the initial migration shock, the relationships are found to be extremely long-lasting.

Advances in Web-based GIS, Mapping Services and Applications is published as part of ISPRS WG IV/5 effort, and aims at presenting (1) Recent technological advancements, e.g., new developments under Web 2.0, map mashups, neogeography and the like; (2) Balanced theoretical discussions and technical implementations; (3) Commentary on the current stages of development; and (4) Prediction of developments over the next decade. Containing 21 contributions from 60 researchers active within ISPRS communities, most of them from academia and some from governments, the book covers a wide range of topics related to the state-of-the-art in web mapping/GIS and geographic information services. The volume is organized in five sections: 1. Analytical and Geospatial Services; 2. Performance; 3. Augmentation and LBS; 4. Collaboration and Decision Making, and 5. Open Standards for Geospatial Services. Supported by a considerable number of technical details and examples, an overall view of the current achievements and progress made in the field of web-based GIS and mapping services is given. The chapters reflect timely and future developments addressing: constant updating of related web and geospatial technologies as well as the revolution of web mapping caused by mainstream IT vendors such as Google, Yahoo and Microsoft; increased interest from industry on geo-spatial information technologies; and increasing demand from the general public for prompt and effective spatial information services. Advances in Web-based GIS, Mapping Services and Applications will appeal to academia and researchers, application specialists and developers, practitioners, and undergraduate and graduate students interested in distributed and web-based geoinformation systems and applications, geodatabases, and digital mapping.

The U.S. labor market contracted sharply during the Great Recession. The ensuing recovery has been sluggish and by some measures still incomplete. In this paper, we break down aggregate employment during the Recession and the recovery into changes across industries and occupations. There is a clear asymmetric pattern: The contraction is driven by sectors and the recovery by occupations. In particular, the contraction between 2008 and 2010 primarily reflects a steep decline in construction employment, partially mitigated by expansions in the food services, education, and health industries. The recovery first came from a gradual increase in low-skill occupation employment across all sectors but after 2012 from a pronounced increase in high-skill occupation employment across all sectors. This pattern of recovery is a continuation of the underlying trend of polarization across occupations, which commenced in the 1980s.

This paper exploits the exogenous and differential immigrant supply shocks caused by the immigration quota system in the 1920s to identify the causal effects of the immigration restriction on the US manufacturing wages, the Great Migration, and industrial production between 1920 and 1930. I find that the immigration restriction significantly increased manufacturing wages and encouraged the southern black population to migrate to the North. I also find that the decline in the immigrant supply constrained the growth of the scale of manufacturing production and discouraged technology adoption of electrification.

The introduction of Marketplaces under the Affordable Care Act greatly expanded individual-market health insurance coverage in 2014, but millions of adults continued to purchase individual coverage outside of the Marketplaces. They were more likely to be male, be white, have higher incomes, and be in excellent or very good health, compared to Marketplace enrollees.

This paper examines how two supply-side regulations–modified community rating and risk adjustment–impact the Affordable Care Act (ACA) exchange in California. Using data on individual-level choices and networking providers, I estimate a model of health insurance demand and supply incorporating heterogeneity in preferences, plan characteristics, and costs. The results indicate consumers in this market are highly price-sensitive, and margins are modest (between 3% and 8%). Without risk adjustment, modified community rating in the ACA would lead to a significant reduction in enrollment in desirable plans and in take-up overall. Risk adjustment under the ACA roughly restores relative shares across plans to what they would be without community rating. The reduction in overall take-up from community rating is not impacted by risk adjustment. An alternative risk adjustment method can increase enrollment by 2.6% and would have little impact on government spending. Other policies besides risk adjustment would be needed to address low take-up among price-sensitive, low-cost consumers under community rating.

In order to counteract the negative effects of population ageing on the sustainability of pension schemes and on economic growth, higher labor force participation of older workers is advocated in western countries (Bongaarts 2004; Christensen et al. 2009; Vaupel and Loichinger 2005; Scherbov et al. 2014). Longer active lives are encouraged by raising the age at eligibility to pension benefits and by restricting access to early retirement benefits (OECD 2015). When taking such measures, governments implicitly assume that workers are healthy enough to keep working beyond the ages at which they currently retire. In other words, they assume that there is substantial unused capacity to work past the traditional retirement ages. If this proves right, workers are likely to respond to the policy changes and work longer. If this proves wrong, workers will retire . . .

The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) expands access to health insurance in the United States, and, to date, an estimated 20 million previously uninsured individuals have gained coverage. Understanding the law's impact on coverage, access, utilization, and health outcomes, especially among low-income populations, is critical to informing ongoing debates about its effectiveness and implementation. Early findings indicate that there have been significant reductions in the rate of uninsurance among the poor and among those who live in Medicaid expansion states. In addition, the law has been associated with increased health care access, affordability, and use of preventive and outpatient services among low-income populations, though impacts on inpatient utilization and health outcomes have been less conclusive. Although these early findings are generally consistent with past coverage expansions, continued monitoring of these domains is essential to understand the long-term impact of the law for underserved populations.

The purpose of this quantitative analysis is to understand the reasons for the marriage gap that exist between white and Black women between the ages of 25 to 34 in 2010 and explore the role socio-economic conditions and spatial context have on marriage opportunities.

The explicit costs of raising a child have grown over the past several decades. Less well understood are the implicit costs of having a child, and how they have changed over time. In this paper we use longitudinal administrative data from over 70,000 individuals in the Synthetic SIPP Beta to examine the earnings gap between mothers and non-mothers over the lifecycle and between cohorts. We observe women who never have children beginning to out earn women who will have children during their 20s. Gaps increase monotonically over the lifecycle, and decrease monotonically between cohorts from age 26 onwards. In our oldest cohort, lifetime gaps approach $350,000 by age 62. Cumulative labor market experience profiles show similar patterns, with experience gaps between mothers and non-mothers generally increasing over the lifecycle and decreasing between cohorts. We decompose this cumulative gap in earnings (up to age 43) into portions attributable to time spent out of the labor force, differing levels of education, years of marriage and a number of demographic controls. We find that this gap between mothers and non-mothers declines from around $220,000 for women born in the late 1940s to around $160,000 for women born in the late 1960s. Over 80% of the change in this gap can be explained by variables in our model, with changes in labor force participation by far the best explanation for the declining gap. Comparing our oldest cohort as they approach retirement to the projected lifecycle behavior of the 1965 cohort, we find that the earnings gap is estimated to drop from $350,000 (observed) to $282,000 (expected) and that the experience gap drops from 3.7 to 2.1 years. We also explore the intensive margin costs of having a child. A decomposition of earnings gaps between mothers of one child and mothers of two children also controls for age at first birth. Here, we find a decline in the gap from around $78,000 for our oldest cohorts to around $37,000 for our youngest cohorts. Our model explains a smaller share of the intensive margin decline. Changes in absences from the labor market again explain a large amount of the decline, while differences in age at first birth widen the gap.

Past research has shown that Hispanic students make test score gains relative to whites as they age through school; however, this finding stands in contrast to the experience of blacks, who show little change in their relative position over the same time frame. Distinguishing Hispanic students by immigrant generation, I find that the children of immigrants (first- and second-generation Hispanics) drive the improvement in Hispanic test scores. Later-generation Hispanics consistently perform slightly below whites, perhaps due to negative selection into ethnic identification. Thus, previous estimates vastly understate the progress of first- and second-generation Hispanic immigrants. From a negative gap in 3rd grade, these students surpass socioeconomically similar whites in math and reading by middle school and end 8th grade as much as a quarter of a standard deviation ahead. Assimilation alone cannot explain this progress; a potential explanation is that immigrant parents create a home environment that fosters achievement.

Introduction: Annual per-capita automobile travel declined by 600 miles from 2003 to 2014 with decreases greatest among young adults. This article tests whether the decline has been accompanied by public health co-benefits of increased physical activity and decreased motor vehicle fatalities. Methods: Minutes of auto travel and physical activity derived from active travel, sports, and exercise were obtained from the American Time Use Survey. Fatalities were measured using the Fatality Analysis Reporting System. Longitudinal change was assessed for adults aged 2059 years by age group and sex. Significance of changes was assessed by absolute differences and unadjusted and adjusted linear trends. Analyses were conducted in 2016. Results: Daily auto travel decreased by 9.2 minutes from 2003 to 2014 for all ages (p<0.001) with the largest decrease among men aged 2029 years (delta= 21.7, p<0.001). No significant changes were observed in total minutes of physical activity. Motor vehicle occupant fatalities per 100,000 population showed significant declines for all ages (delta=5.8, p<0.001) with the largest for young men (Delta= 15.3, p<0.001). Fatalities per million minutes of auto travel showed only modest declines across age groups and, for men aged 2029 years, varied from 10.9 (95% CI=10.0, 11.7) in 2003 to 9.7 (95% CI=8.7, 10.8) in 2014. Conclusions: Reduced motor vehicle fatalities are a public health co-benefit of decreased driving, especially for male millennials. Despite suggestions to the contrary, individuals did not switch from cars to active modes nor spend more time in sports and exercise. Maintenance of the safety benefits requires additional attention to road safety efforts, particularly as auto travel increases.

There is limited existing evidence justifying the economic case for state education policy. Using newly-developed measures of the cognitive skills of workers in each state that allow for selective internal migration and foreign immigration, we provide preliminary estimates of growth regressions that incorporate worker skills. Our descriptive models show that educational achievement predicts economic growth across U.S. states over the past four decades. Based on projections from our growth models, we show the substantial potential scope for state economic development through improving the quality of schools. While we consider the impact for each state of a range of educational reforms, an improvement that moves each state to the best-performing state would in the aggregate yield an estimated present value of long-run economic gains of 8 percent of discounted future GDP.

Where do individuals identifying as Hispanic fit in the racial landscape of the United States? The answer offered by past work is complex: The empirical results do not lend themselves to simple interpretation as no single hypothesis fits the Hispanic case very well. Instead, Hispanic integration is described as mixtures of different archetypical hypotheses, like panethnic formation, white assimilation, and racialized assimilation. My goal is to develop a formal framework to help make sense of this complex picture. I extend past work by showing which combination of integration processes (panethnic formation, white assimilation, etc.) best characterizes Hispanic marriage patterns. I make two analytical contributions. First, I organize past Hispanic hypotheses, both archetypical and blended, into a single theoretical framework defined by the salience of race and Hispanic ethnicity. Second, I parametize this theoretical framework using latent social space models. In this way, I am able to specify a set of interconnected, complex hypotheses in a tractable manner. I follow past work and use marriage/cohabitation data to test the hypotheses. Using American Community Survey data (2010–2012), I find that Hispanic marriage/cohabitation patterns suggest high salience on both race and Hispanic ethnicity. Thus, categories like black-Mexican or white-Cuban represent relationally distinct social categories—distinct from both non-Hispanic racial categories (e.g., black or white) and Hispanic categories of a different racial identity.