Studies of residential segregation typically focus on its degree without questioning its scale and configuration. The authors study southern cities in 1880 to emphasize the salience of these spatial dimensions. Distance-based and sequence indices can reflect spatial patterns but with some limitations, while geocoded 100% population data make possible more informative measures. One improvement is flexibility in spatial scale, ranging from adjacent buildings to whole districts of the city. Another is the ability to map patterns in fine detail. In southern cities the authors find qualitatively distinct configurations that include not only black “neighborhoods” as usually imagined but also backyard housing, alley housing, and side streets that were predominantly black. These configurations represent the sort of symbolic boundaries recognized by urban ethnographers. By mapping residential configurations and interpreting them in light of historical accounts, the authors intend to capture meanings that are too often missed by quantitative studies of segregation.

Purpose The number of individuals who have started a regimen for HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) in the United States is not well characterized but has been on the rise since 2012. This analysis assesses the distribution of PrEP use nationally and among subgroups. Methods A validated algorithm quantifying tenofovir disoproxil fumarate/emtricitabine for PrEP in the United States was applied to a national prescription database to determine the quarterly prevalence of PrEP use. HIV diagnoses from 2016 were used as an epidemiological proxy for PrEP need. The PrEP-to-need ratio (PnR) was defined as the number of PrEP users divided by new HIV diagnoses. Results A total of 70,395 individuals used PrEP in the fourth quarter of 2017: 67,166 males and 3229 females. Nationally, prevalence of PrEP use was 26/100,000 (range across states per 100,000 [RAS/100k]: 4–73) and the PnR was 1.8 (RAS: 0.5–6.6). Prevalence of PrEP use among males and females, respectively, was 50/100,000 and 2/100,000 (RAS/100k: 7–143 and 0.3–7) and PnR was 2.1 and 0.4 (RAS: 0.6–7.1 and 0.1–4.0). Prevalence of PrEP use was lowest among individuals aged less than or equal to 24 and more than or equal to 55 years (15/100,000 and 6/100,000, RAS/100k: 1–45 and 0.4–14), with PnR 0.9 and 1.5 (RAS: 0.2–5.6 and 0.3–7.0). The Northeast had the highest PnR (3.3); the South had the lowest (1.0). States with Medicaid expansion had more than double the PnR than states without expansion. Conclusions Available data suggest that females, individuals aged less than or equal to 24 years and residents of the South had lower levels of PrEP use relative to epidemic need. These results are ecological, and misclassification may attenuate results. PnR is useful for future assessments of HIV prevention strategy uptake.

This article tests whether places with higher exposure to unionization during the 1940s, due to their pre‐existing industrial composition, tended to have larger declines in wage inequality, conditional on local economic and demographic observables and regional trends. We find a strong negative correlation between exposure to unionization and changes in local inequality from 1940–50 and 1940–60. This does not appear to be underpinned by skill‐specific sorting of workers or by firms leaving places with high exposure to unionization. We also find that the correlation between exposure to unionization in the 1940s and the change in inequality after 1940 persists in long‐difference regressions to the end of the twentieth century.

Lawmakers in Nevada must pave the way to economic security for women and families by ensuring that state policies guarantee economic equality and reproductive health care access for all women. Policies that, for example, provide paid sick leave and increase the minimum wage would ensure that all families in Nevada can get ahead-not just get by. Women need policies that reflect their roles as providers and caregivers. In Nevada, mothers are the sole, primary, or co-breadwinners in 59.6 percent of families, 1 and these numbers are higher for some women of color. The following policy recommendations can help support the economic security of women and families in Nevada. Promote equal pay for equal work Although federal law prohibits unequal pay for equal work, there is more that can be done to ensure that both women and men across Nevada enjoy the fullest protections against discrimination. • Nevada women who are full-time, year-round workers earned about 83 cents for every dollar that Nevada men earned in 2017; 2 if the wage gap continues to close at its current rate, women will not reach parity in the state until 2043. 3 The wage gap is even larger for black women and Latinas in Nevada, who earned 65.5 cents and 54.4 cents, respectively, for every dollar that white men earned in 2016. 4 • Due to the gender wage gap, each woman in Nevada will lose an average of $345,800 over the course of her lifetime. 5

Daily rhythms in human physiology and behavior are driven by the interplay of circadian rhythms, environmental cycles, and social schedules. Much research has focused on the mechanism and function of circadian rhythms in constant conditions or in idealized light-dark environments. There have been comparatively few studies into how social pressures, such as work and school schedules, affect human activity rhythms day to day and season to season. To address this issue, we analyzed activity on Twitter in >1,500 US counties throughout the 2012–2013 calendar years in 15-min intervals using geographically tagged tweets representing ≈0.1% of the total population each day. We find that sustained periods of low Twitter activity are correlated with sufficient sleep as measured by conventional surveys. We show that this nighttime lull in Twitter activity is shifted to later times on weekends relative to weekdays, a phenomenon we term “Twitter social jet lag.” The magnitude of this social jet lag varies seasonally and geographically—with the West Coast experiencing less Twitter social jet lag compared to the Central and Eastern US—and is correlated with average commuting schedules and disease risk factors such as obesity. Most counties experience the largest amount of Twitter social jet lag in February and the lowest in June or July. We present evidence that these shifts in weekday activity coincide with relaxed social pressures due to local K-12 school holidays and that the direct seasonal effect of altered day length is comparatively weaker.

The first chapter investigates the role of financial intermediation in explaining the occupation choices. A large fraction of the labour force in developing countries is own-account workers who work for themselves and have no paid employees. This paper argues that imperfect financial intermediation drives a wedge between the return on saving and the cost of borrowing. A larger wedge generates a lower return on saving and a higher borrowing cost. The lower return induces individuals with some wealth but low entrepreneurial ability to manage their own wealth. Together with a wage fall when financial intermediation worsens, the model predicts higher share of own-account workers and lower share of wage workers. The second chapter explores the impact of One-Child Policy on human capital and aggregate income. A quantity-quality trade-off predicts an increase in human capital when fertility falls. The higher human capital level contributes to aggregate output but the lower fertility reduces the size of future labour force, hence reduces aggregate output. In a quantitative OLG model, I show that the human capital level of children born under the strict One-child Policy increases, but the policy’s effect on aggregate income turned negative in around 2000 due to smaller size of labour force. The third chapter examines the effects of a decline in transaction cost of information good. We classify industries into information sector and noninformation sector, and we classify labour into information labour and noninformation labour. We make two observations from the data. The first is the increase in the share of information intermediate input in total intermediate input. The second is the increase in return to information labour relative to non-information labour. In a two sector model, We find that under reasonable parameter assumptions, a decline in transaction cost of information good cannot explain both facts.

BACKGROUND Family effects can be confounded with spatial effects, since family members live near each other. OBJECTIVE Our aim is to find out whether a father's wealth was related to his son's wealth when spatial effects are included in the model. The data is from the United States from 1850 to 1870. Since the data comes from genealogies we are also able to test for deeper family effects lasting several generations. METHODS This article uses Bayesian longitudinal methods that incorporate spatial effects. The data comes from the genealogies of nine New England families that have been linked to the US censuses of 1850, 1860, and 1870, which had information on real property, the dependent variable in our analysis. RESULTS No relationship was found between the wealth of the father and his sons in our data, nor were the deeper family effects significant. Spatial effects were also not significant. However, there was a strong temporal effect: Men were wealthier in 1860 than they were in 1850 or 1870. CONCLUSION There is evidence of economic mobility in a rapidly expanding population and economy such as the United States was during the 19 th century. Since temporal effects were more important than spatial effects the amount of mobility might be transitory and highly dependent upon the particular time period and cohort being studied. CONTRIBUTION The article illustrates the usefulness of methods that include spatial effects for the study of economic mobility, particularly in studies of family effects, and the importance of including both spatial and temporal effects when analyzing economic mobility.

The analysis of collective identities is certainly one of the most important and intriguing subjects of historical research.1 'The very title of the present volume reveals what might be called a sort of ontological paradox: •imagined commu­nities' do not exist as such, they are based on fictions - and yet, they form arguably the strongest social and political factor we know. In the light of this statement, it is all the more important to understand the rules governing the processes of imagination and communication which lead to the construction of collective identities as social realities.2 With regard to late medieval France, the focus of analysis has mostly been on national or monarchy-centred identities. Colette Beaune, in her study on the "Naissance de la nation Francet' investigates the symbolic and ideological...

The history of Latina girls and women in education has been woefully neglected. Standing at the intersection of the historiographical strands of women’s, educational, and Latina/o (chiefly Mexican and Puerto Rican) history, it has been hidden away for decades, surfacing briefly in studies on Chicana rights and contemporary analyses. This chapter examines the higher educational experiences of Mexican American women in the Southwest during the transformative decades between World War I and the Civil Rights Movement. Drawing from U.S. census bureau samples, primary textual sources, digitized oral histories and secondary sources, a thematic and chronological approach is utilized. The first section outlines four broad Mexican cultural and U.S. societal factors impacting higher educational access and completion, particularly gendered aspects. The second section introduces historical vignettes from three generations – Interwar Pioneras (1920–1937); Rosita’s Sisters in the World War II and Cold War Eras (1938–1959); and Incipient Chicanas (1960–1965). The third section discusses methodological challenges to researching Mexican educational history narrowly, and Latina/o history broadly. We further suggest ways in which this history can set the stage for future agendas towards a more inclusive mosaic of American higher education.

It is widely thought that immigrants and their families undergo profound cultural and socioeconomic changes as a consequence of coming into contact with U.S. society, but the way this occurs remains unclear and controversial due in large part to data limitations. In this paper, we provide proof of concept for analyses using linked data that allow us to compare outcomes across more “exact” family generations. Specifically, we are able to follow immigrant parents and their children and grandchildren across seven decades using census and survey data from 1940 to 2014. We describe the data and linkage methodology, evaluate the representativeness of the linked sample, test a method for adjusting for biases that arise from non-representative linkages, and describe the size, diversity, and socioeconomic characteristics of the linked sample. We demonstrate that large sample sizes of linked data will likely permit us to compare several national origin groups across multiple generations.

South Carolina officials are proposing that very low-income parents and caregivers who qualify for Medicaid fulfill new reporting requirements to show they are working at least 80 hours a month or participating in job- training activities — or face the loss of their health coverage. The state is seeking a Section 1115 Medicaid demonstration waiver from the federal government to implement this plan. If approved, it could mean that many of South Carolina’s poorest parents lose health coverage altogether: They could make too much to qualify for Medicaid but not enough to afford private insurance even if they find new jobs. Or they may lose their coverage as a result of getting tangled up in new reporting requirements.

What drove up wage inequality and caused the loss of middle-skill jobs in the US? I present a quan- titative model which accounts for changes in occupational wages, occupational employment shares, and the overall wage distribution in the US to answer this question. The model replicates numerous aspects of cross-sectional data observed across decades from 1979 to 2010, notably job and wage polarization. In the model, changes in production complementarities are crucial but insufficient to replicate the occu- pational and wage changes observed. The distribution of worker skills, sorting, and the distribution of skill demands also all play important roles in shaping the occupational and wage distributions. I use the model’s estimated skill demands to evaluate prominent explanations offered in the literature for changes in skill demands. I find that industry-specific trends, technological progress, and import competition from China account for up to 57% of these changes. I also find that information and communications technology spurred demand for jobs requiring interpersonal and social skills in the 1990s. This develop- ment appears far more pivotal in accounting for skill demand changes than the automation of routine jobs concentrated in the manufacturing and construction sectors.

Objective. To test how Certificate of Need laws affect all-cause mortality in the United States. Data Sources. The data of 1992-2011 all-cause mortality are from the Center for Disease Control's Compressed Mortality File; control variables are from the Current Population Survey, Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, and Area Health Resources File; and data on Certificate of Need laws are from Stratmann and Russ (2014). Study design. Using fixed-and random-effects regressions, I test how the scope of state Certificate of Need laws affects all-cause mortality within US counties. Principal Findings. Certificate of Need laws have no statistically significant effect on all-cause mortality. Point estimates indicate that if they have any effect, they are more likely to increase mortality than decrease it. Conclusions. Proponents of Certificate of Need laws have claimed that they reduce mortality by concentrating more care into fewer, larger facilities that engage in learning by doing. However, I find no evidence that these laws reduce all-cause mortality.

This article updates the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) report Multifamily Properties: Opting In, Opting Out and Remaining Affordable (Finkel et al., 2006). The original report examined the loss of affordable housing associated with HUD’s Section 8 project-based rental assistance and Section 236 and 221(d)(3) subsidized mortgage programs between 1998 and 2004. It found that properties with low rents compared to the surrounding Fair Market Rent (FMR), that serve a family population, and that are owned by for-profit corporations were particularly at risk for loss of affordability. The analysis is updated here for the period 2005 to 2014. It shows that more owners made active decisions to opt in to Section 8 assistance in the latter period, while HUD’s older subsidized mortgage programs were largely being phased out. Factors such as for- profit ownership and low rent-to-FMR ratios continued to be associated with higher risk of loss of affordability, but these factors were less influential from 2005 to 2014 than in the original study. The article also explores the use of the Low-Income Housing Tax Credit Program and HUD refinancing to preserve affordability in Section 8 developments. The analysis finds that these preservation tools are associated with extended affordability for thousands of HUD-assisted properties. Additional preservation initiatives and improved targeting may be needed to preserve other HUD-assisted properties, particularly smaller developments in strong real estate markets.

While a growing literature has shown that women prefer investments in child welfare and increased redistribution, little is known about the long-term effect of empowering women. Exploiting plausibly exogenous variation in U.S. suffrage laws, we show that children from economically disadvantaged backgrounds who were exposed to women’s political empowerment during childhood experienced large increases in educational attainment, especially blacks and Southern whites. We also find improvements in earnings among whites and blacks that experienced educational gains. We employ newly digitized data to map these long-term effects to contemporaneous increases in local education spending and childhood health, showing that educational gains were linked to improvements in the policy environment.

This study assesses the causes of within-group inequality, or the inequality occurring among workers and households otherwise similar on observed characteristics. The author situates his research in a longitudinal analysis of local labor markets to determine the heterogeneous set of causes of within-group inequality. A data set is constructed locating within- and between-group portions of male wage, female wage, and household income inequality from nine waves of the integrated public use microdata series from the U.S. census in 722 temporally stable geographical units that cover the entire contiguous United States. Results from heteroscedastic and multilevel repeated-measures regression models reveal that within-group inequality follows economic development along a U-shaped pattern and that the well-established curvilinear relationship between development and inequality occurs specifically through the within-group portion of wages and incomes. Other factors—including sector change, occupational task concentration, educational expansion, urbanization, and deinstitutionalization—contribute to explain the association between within-group inequality and economic development.

Public reports to the police are a key component of the formal social control process and have distinct interracial dynamics. This study examines the relationship between incident severity, neighborhood context, and participant race and patterns in the determination of probable cause and arrest in reactive police contacts. We utilize a complete record of police incidents in Seattle, Washington from 2008 through 2012 including information on race of reporters and targets and type of offense. These data are matched to longitudinal tract‐level census data to evaluate how incident outcomes relate to neighborhood change. Results indicate that black targets are more frequently subject to arrest overall, particularly in changing neighborhoods and when reporters are white. For nuisance crimes such as public disturbances, probable cause is found more often for white reporters but less often in changing neighborhoods.

High vacancy rates in a housing market typically signal a weak market, where supply outruns demand, and rents are stagnant. However, in San Francisco – as well as many other high-cost cities such as Vancouver, London, and New York – we see a different phenomenon: an extremely tight housing market with sky-rocketing rents, that puzzlingly also has a high vacancy rate. This trend is counter-intuitive. With so much demand and high-housing costs, one would expect to see extremely low vacancy rates in high-cost cities such as San Francisco; high demand would result in quick turnover between tenancies, and hefty mortgages due to high property costs would incentivize property owners to rent out their units. Why, then, are there high vacancy rates in such a high cost city and metropolitan area as San Francisco? These vacant units are more than just a peculiar trend; they are also removing valuable housing stock from the already extremely tight housing market. In 2000, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated that San Francisco had approximately 16,000 vacant housing units. In the American Community Survey estimate from 2015, the estimated number of vacant units had doubled to approximately 33,000 vacant units. To put this figure in perspective, San Francisco has a total of approximately 390,000 housing units. These vacant units could help to satiate some of the unmet demand for housing in the region if they were returned to the housing market. Considering the fact that former SF Mayor Ed Lee’s housing goals included the production of 30,000 units in five . . .

We investigate the impacts of the new wave of digitalization and artificial intelligence (AI) on individual transitions in the US labor market. Based on large representative panel data–the matched monthly Current Population Survey– we provide evidence that significant effects of AI are already observable at the individual level. In particular, a larger risk of digitalization of an individual’s current occupation is associated with a higher likelihood of switching occupations or becoming non-employed. We find that entry into unincorporated entrepreneurship is most likely at a medium level of digitalization risk, whereas there is no significant association between digitalization risk and entry into incorporated entrepreneurship. We also find significant gender differences in the effects of digitalization on transitions into different types of entrepreneurship.

There is extensive scholarship on the condition of being a minority in one's home country and vast literature on the experience of immigrants in host countries. However, almost no attention has been paid to the distinct mechanisms pertaining to immigrants who were minorities in the source country and moved to another. This paper integrates the literature on minorities with that of migration and addresses this gap by developing a theory of a growing phenomenon: the transnational social mobility of minorities. Using the US census and the American Community Survey, 14 groups of minorities (e.g., British Pakistanis) who immigrated to the USA are compared to the corresponding majority groups from the same country (e.g., the British majority). Findings show that all minorities have a lower starting point than the corresponding majority group from the same country. However, non-black minorities succeed faster and, in some cases, even pass majorities over time. In contrast, black immigrant minorities remain disadvantaged in comparison to whites from the same country.