This research note identifies seven key dimensions of the nonprofit sector that nonprofit stakeholders want to monitor to assess the sector’s condition, including financial resources; human resources; the diversity of nonprofit boards, staff, and clients; the impact of the nonprofit sector; advocacy activity; ethical and legal behavior; and the existence of a supportive environment. The article then describes current measures of these dimensions, noting the shortcomings of many of these measures. Two government data sources, the National Income and Product Accounts (NIPAs) and the Current Population Survey (CPS), are highlighted that contain timely information about the nonprofit sector but which, to date, have been underutilized by sector stakeholders. Next, the article describes the picture of the nonprofit sector that emerges from the relevant measures before concluding with discussion of further work needed to improve measurement of the sector.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Using a local measure of racial residential segregation, estimate the association between racial residential segregation and childhood blood lead levels between the early 1990s and 2015 in North Carolina. METHODS: This population-based observational study uses individual-level blood lead testing records obtained from the NC Department of Health and Human Services for 320 916 children aged <7 years who were tested between 1992 and 1996 or 2013 and 2015. NC childhood blood lead levels were georeferenced to the census tract. Neighborhood racial residential segregation, assessed using a local, spatial measure of the racial isolation of non-Hispanic Blacks (RINHB), was calculated at the census tract level. RESULTS: From 1990 to 2015, RINHB increased in 50% of 2195 NC census tracts, although the degree of change varied by geographic region. In 1992 to 1996 blood lead testing data, a 1-standard-deviation increase in tract-level RINHB was associated with a 2.86% (95% confidence interval: 0.96%-4.81%) and 2.44% (1.34%-3.56%) increase in BLL among non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic White children, respectively. In 2013 to 2015 blood lead testing data, this association was attenuated but persisted with a 1-standard-deviation increase in tract-level RINHB associated with a 1.59% (0.50%-2.70%) and 0.76% (0.08%-1.45%) increase in BLL among non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic White children, respectively. In the supplemental information, we show the change in racial residential segregation across the entire United States, demonstrating that RINHB increased in 69% of 72 899 US census tracts. CONCLUSIONS: Racially isolated neighborhoods are associated with higher childhood lead levels, demonstrating the disproportionate environmental burdens borne by segregated communities and warranting attention to providing whole child health care.

There have been major shifts at the state level in social and legal rights available to women and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (“LGBT”) individuals. Variation in policies across states has resulted in a patchwork of rights for these groups. In this study, we examine the effects of state-level policies on migration attitudes, including restrictions on abortion, gender-affirming medical care, transgender individuals’ access to sports in schools, discussions about gender and sexuality in schools, same-sex marriage, and employment discrimination based on sexual orientation. Drawing on survey data from 1061 participants, we pay particular attention to how state-level political context and sociodemographic factors shape desire to move to a state with newly restrictive gender and sexuality policies. Results indicate that restrictive state policies on abortion and LGBT issues serve as both push and pull factors affecting desire to move to a state. Although political orientation provides the greatest explanatory power for migration attitudes, the majority of survey respondents across political orientations reported that these policies either made them less likely to want to move to a state or did not affect their desires. Further, state-level political climate, gender, sexual orientation, race, parenthood status, income, and willingness to migrate for work, political climate, or education were related to migration attitudes. Findings suggest that states enacting these policies could experience economic effects due to a decline in migration, particularly for those seeking employment opportunities or pursuits of higher education. In addition, states could see a decline in migration from women and LGBT individuals, and their allies.

Recent events have increased the focus on racial justice. One aspect of this attention is the realization that race interacts in important — but often not fully understood — ways with taxation, including taxation of the family. In this paper, we quantify the racial disparity in the magnitude of the “marriage penalty” or “marriage bonus,” using individual micro-level data from the Current Population Survey for the years 1992–2019. We find that Black married couples nearly always face a higher averaged marriage penalty (or a smaller averaged marriage bonus) compared with white married couples, even when we compare couples with similar family earnings. This occurs primarily because the incomes of Black married couples tend to be more evenly split between spouses than the incomes of white married couples. The differences between white couples and Hispanic couples tend to be smaller, but nonetheless they are still present in many cases, with Hispanic couples also facing a marriage penalty. We conclude with suggestions for reform of the individual income tax that would reduce the disparate racial and ethnic treatments across families.

Similar to obstetric outcomes, rates of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) infection are not homogeneously distributed among populations; risk factors accumulate in discrete locations. This study aimed to investigate the geographical correlation between pre-COVID-19 regional preterm birth (PTB) disparities and subsequent COVID-19 disease burden. We performed a retrospective, ecological cohort study of an upstate New York birth certificate database from 2004 to 2018, merged with publicly available community resource data. COVID-19 rates from 2020 were used to allocate ZIP codes to "low," "moderate," and "high-prevalence" groups, defined by median COVID-19 diagnosis rates. COVID-19 cohorts were associated with poverty and educational attainment data from the US Census Bureau. The dataset was analyzed for the primary outcome of PTB using ANOVA. GIS mapping visualized PTB rates and COVID-19 disease rates by ZIP code. Within 38 ZIP codes, 123,909 births were included. The median COVID-19 infection rate was 616.5 (per 100 K). PTB (all) and COVID-19 were positively correlated, with high-prevalence COVID-19 ZIP codes also being the areas with the highest prevalence of PTB (F = 11.06, P = .0002); significance was also reached for PTB < 28 weeks (F = 15.87, P < .0001) and periviable birth (F = 16.28, P < .0001). Odds of PTB < 28 weeks were significantly higher in the "high-prevalence" COVID-19 cohort compared to the "low-prevalence" COVID 19 cohort (OR 3.27 (95% CI 2.42-4.42)). COVID-19 prevalence was directly associated with number of individuals below poverty level and indirectly associated with median household income and educational attainment. GIS mapping demonstrated ZIP code clustering in the urban center with the highest rates of PTB < 28 weeks overlapping with high COVID-19 disease burden. Historical disparities in social determinants of health, exemplified by PTB outcomes, map community distribution of COVID-19 disease burden. These data should inspire socioeconomic policies supporting economic vibrancy to promote optimal health outcomes across all communities.

This study summarizes and analyzes the gender and racial discrimination that musicians may face in the music labor market of the United States, with a focus on exploring gender and race interactions’ effects on the economic return of musicians. This study is based on a survey of 1,227 musicians in the United States in 2018, which was conducted by the Music Industry Research Association (MIRA) and the Princeton University Survey Research Center (SRC), in partnership with MusiCares. The survey reveals that females, who make up about one-third of the population of musicians, report experiencing high rates of discrimination and sexual harassment. When considering female musicians, 72% report that they have been discriminated against because of their gender, and 67% report that they have been the victim of sexual harassment; corresponding figures for U.S. women more generally are 28% and 42%, respectively. For non-White musicians, 63% said they faced racial discrimination, as compared to 36% of on-White self-employed workers nationwide who said the same. Although the descriptive statistics suggest that musicians are suffering from both gender and racial discrimination, no initial empirical evidence has been found that this would have a negative impact on musicians’ music-related earnings. The interaction effects between gender and race in both general and specific forms on music-related earnings are studied to further explore the possible effect of gender/racial discrimination on the economic return to musicians’ music-related activities; however, although some race-associated differences have been found, the evidence of racial discrimination on the economic return is not strong.

This thesis explores only-child fertility from a sociodemographic perspective across three main chapters. The first substantive chapter examines trends in the proportion of women with an only-child across 125 countries, from 1920-79 birth cohorts, with combined data from different sources. The results show that the prevalence of only-child fertility has increased across the globe. However, as overall fertility reaches below-replacement, trends become more heterogeneous, and factors beyond a country’s cohort fertility rates and mean ages at childbearing become more important in dictating these prevalences. The second substantive chapter, with data from four countries in the first two waves of the Generations and Gender Surveys, explores fertility intentions and the realisation of those intentions in Eastern and Western Europe for a first and second child with the use of probit models with sample selection. The results show that while people seem to consider families and friends’ opinions, as well as what they believe to be the pros and cons of having a child when forming their fertility intentions, the actual realisation of intentions is more strongly guided by their perceived financial and physiological conditions for having and raising a child. The chapter further discusses differences between Eastern and Western Europe, and between those having a first and second child. The final substantive chapter explores behaviour differences between only-children and children with siblings in the British context with data from the Millennium Cohort Study. Results of a series of logistic models for children aged 3-14, show that only-children have higher odds of presenting abnormal peer behaviours, but fared better than children with siblings in conduct scores. However, the conduct score advantage for only-children disappears when only firstborns or only children with a resident father are considered.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the association between education and the age gap between spouses in heterosexual unions. The study also examines how this association has changed over time in different cohorts, especially among women, in the context of educational expansion in Latin America. The research used the data collected from census rounds conducted between 1970 and 2010 in Bolivia, Ecuador, and Uruguay. The sample included men and women aged between 25 to 29. The findings reveal that there was no significant decrease in the age difference throughout the cohorts for both men and women. However, a negative relationship was observed between the spousal age difference and educational level in women. On the other hand, men showed greater heterogeneity between countries.

In the 1920s, the United States substantially reduced immigration by imposing country-specific entry quotas. We compare local labor markets differentially exposed to the quotas due to variation in the national-origin mix of their immigrant population. US-born workers in areas losing immigrants did not benefit relative to workers in less exposed areas. Instead, in urban areas, European immigrants were replaced with internal migrants and immigrants from Mexico and Canada. By contrast, farmers shifted toward capital-intensive agriculture, and the immigrant-intensive mining industry contracted. These differences highlight the uneven effects of the quota system at the local level.

The literature on child development traditionally emphasizes maternal time use, female labor supply, and their impact on child outcomes. This study uncovers two key findings: First, fathers exhibit significantly greater variation in time spent with their children compared to mothers. Second, there is a strong positive relationship between fathers' labor market participation and their involvement in childcare-a trend not observed among mothers. This suggests that the long-assumed trade-off between labor market participation and childcare does not apply to fathers in the same way it does to mothers. To quantify the impact of this paternal time investment heterogeneity on child development inequality, this study estimates production functions for cognitive and health development in children aged 1-18, using data from both fathers and mothers in the PSID time diary and child development supplement. The analysis, based on a nonlinear latent factor model with gender-specific labor demand shocks as instruments, reveals a striking result: Eliminating paternal time investment heterogeneity reduces the variance in child cognition by 22 percent and child health variance by an impressive 49 percent, particularly among children aged 12-18. These findings underscore the significant role of fathers in child development and contribute to the literature on intergenerational mobility by investigating factors based on parental actions, rather than parental identity, with a special emphasis on the heterogeneity of fathers' time allocation.

Child protective services (CPS) contact occurs at substantially higher rates among Black than White families. The present study considers systemic racism as a central driver of this disparity and emphasizes racialized poverty as a possible mechanism. We used data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study and logistic regression analyses to assess the associations between income poverty, a racialized experience, and CPS contact, separately among Black and White families. Results indicated that income poverty was a significant predictor of CPS contact among White families, who were protected by higher income. In contrast, income per se was not a significant predictor of CPS contact among Black families, who were instead impacted by racialized family regulation and consequences of poverty, such as poor health and depression. Refundable state Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) policies were protective for Black families, and more expansive Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) programs decreased CPS contact for Black and White families. Implications include centering systemic racism and specifically racialized poverty as causes of racial inequities in CPS contact and rethinking the role of CPS in protecting children.

In the recent decade, we have seen major progress in quantifying the behaviors and the impact of scientists, resulting in a quantitative toolset capable of monitoring and predicting the career patterns of the profession. It is unclear, however, if this toolset applies to other creative domains beyond the sciences. In particular, while performance in the arts has long been difficult to quantify objectively, research suggests that professional networks and prestige of affiliations play a similar role to those observed in science, hence they can reveal patterns underlying successful careers. To test this hypothesis, here we focus on ballet, as it allows us to investigate in a quantitative fashion the interplay of individual performance, institutional prestige, and network effects. We analyze data on competition outcomes from 6,363 ballet students affiliated with 1,603 schools in the United States, who participated in the Youth America Grand Prix (YAGP) between 2000 and 2021. Through multiple logit models and matching experiments, we provide evidence that schools' strategic network position bridging between communities captures social prestige and predicts the placement of students into jobs in ballet companies. This work reveals the importance of institutional prestige on career success in ballet and showcases the potential of network science approaches to provide quantitative viewpoints for the professional development of careers beyond science.

This paper studies the age-group-specific evolution of inequality of total income among highly and less educated females and males at ages 26-80 from 2005 to 2018 in the United States. Therefore, it presents time series of Gini coefficients and associated de-compositions by different income components to highlight the contributions of different income sources to inequality in different age groups over time. The results indicate that, in particular, higher shares of individuals with zero incomes contributed to the observed increases of inequality among less educated females and males aged 31-50 and 26-60 during the recovery phase after the Great Recession, respectively.

Due to data limitations, long-run changes in women's economic mobility are not well understood. Using a set of marriage certificates from Massachusetts over the period of 1850-1920, we link women and men to their childhood and adult census records to obtain a measure of occupational standing across two generations. Intergenerational mobility was higher for women than for men in the earliest 1850-70 cohort. Men's mobility increases by the 1880-1900 cohort, whereas women's does not, leading to a convergence. During a period with low married women's labor force participation, the choice of a partner was crucial for women's economic status. We find evidence of strong and increasing assortative matching prior to 1880, followed by declines to the 1900-20 cohort. Absent the increase in marital sorting, married women would have experienced the same increases in intergenerational mobility as did men in the sample. Finally, both men and women in the youngest cohort experience an increase in mobility and decreases in marital sorting, consistent with the widespread expansion of educational attainment during the "High School Movement."

The Cool Water condition is a climatic configuration that combines periodically frosty winters with mildly warm summers under the ubiquitous accessibility of fresh water. Historically, it embodied opportunity endowments that weakened fertility pressures, resulting in household formation patterns that empowered women and reduced gender inequality. Reviewing the literature on the deep historic roots of gender inequality, this paper theorizes and provides evidence for a trajectory that (1) originates in the Cool Water climatic configuration, (2) leads to late female marriages in preindustrial times, and (3) eventually paves the way for various gender-egalitarian patterns of the present.

We develop a method which assumes that marital preferences are characterized either by the scalar-valued measure proposed by Liu and Lu, or by the matrix-valued generalized Liu–Lu measure. The new method transforms an observed contingency table into a counterfactual table while preserving its (generalized) Liu–Lu value. After exploring some analytical properties of the new method, we illustrate its application by decomposing changes in the prevalence of homogamy in the US between 1980 and 2010. We perform this decomposition with two alternative transformation methods as well where both methods capture preferences differently from Liu and Lu. Finally, we use survey evidence to support our claim that out of the three considered methods, the new transformation method is the most suitable for identifying the role of marital preferences at shaping marriage patterns. These data are also in favor of measuring assortativity in preferences à la Liu and Lu.

We examine pre-COVID declines in transit ridership, using Southern California as a case study. We first illustrate Southern California’s unique position in the transit landscape: it is a large transit market that demographically resembles a small one. We then draw on administrative data, travel diaries, rider surveys, accessibility indices, and Census microdata for Southern California, and demonstrate a strong association between rising private vehicle access, particularly among the populations most likely to ride transit, and falling transit use. Because we cannot control quantitatively for the endogeneity between vehicle acquisition and transit use, our results are not causal. Nevertheless, the results strongly suggest that increasing private vehicle access helped depress transit ridership. Given Southern California’s similarity to most US transit markets, we conclude that vehicle access may have played a role in transit losses across the US since 2000.

Child food security is a longstanding concern to policymakers, exacerbated by economic slack and instability. We use the fracking era oil and gas boom of the early 2000s as a natural experiment to examine the importance of state economic conditions for child food security. The fracking boom was a large and unexpected economic shock that substantially improved labor market conditions in states with oil and gas resources but not elsewhere. We find that increases in oil and gas labor income improve child food security, especially for children with less educated parents and those residing in single-mother households.

What is the impact of extending public funding to the arts? I draw evidence from the first major instance of federal funding to the arts via New Deal programming to evaluate the impact of artist employment programs on the per capita number of artistic professionals in US cities over time. I employ a set of New Deal spending instruments in an instrumental variables differences-in-differences design to identify the causal impacts of these programs. I determine that the program induced large increases in local per capita levels of writers, theater and film industry workers, and certain kinds of visual artists that have endured to the present-day. Namely, present-day population-shares of writers and artists in photography and design increased by approximately 100 and 1000 professionals respectively per 1 million people in response to an investment of $1,000 per professional in 1935. I document positive, but less temporally persistent impacts on music and general visual arts. A subsequent variance decomposition demonstrates modest, yet non-negligible explanatory power (5-15%) of Federal Project Number One in determining variation within and across cities in post New Deal decades.

Heathcote et al. (2010) conducted an empirical analysis of several dimensions of inequality in the United States over the years 1967-2006, using publicly-available survey data. This paper expands the analysis, and extends it to 2021. We find that since the early 2000s, the college wage premium has stopped growing, and the race wage gap has stalled. However, the gender wage gap has kept shrinking. Both individual- and household-level income inequality have continued to rise at the top, while the cyclical component of inequality dominates dynamics below the median. Inequality in consumption expenditures has remained remarkably stable over time. Income pooling within the family and redistribution by the government have enormous impacts on the dynamics of household-level inequality, with the role of the family diminishing and that of the government growing over time. In particular, largely due to generous government transfers, the COVID recession has been the first downturn in fifty years in which inequality in disposable income and consumption actually declined.