The US is rapidly becoming a more racially and ethnically diverse society. Less than 25 years from now, no single racial or ethnic group will constitute a majority of children. Instead, the new American majority will consist of a mosaic of race-ethnic groups from around the world, many of whom live in immigrant families. It has been nearly a century . . .

Trends toward gender equality largely stalled in the 1990s, but the progressof women in management was mixed. Given the importance of managers asactors in the reproduction of inequality, and managerial positions as rewardsin their own right, this study investigates the relative status of women inmanagement over the past two decades, using U.S. Decennial Census datafrom 1980 to 2000. The authors find that womens entry into managementoccupations slowed markedly in the 1990s. Furthermore, after decreasing inthe 1980s, gender segregation among managers rebounded sharply upward inthe 1990s. However, greater segregation coincided with a decreasing genderearnings gap, which largely resulted from narrowing gaps within integrated ormale-dominated managerial occupations. Finally, there remains a substantialearnings penalty for managers who work in female-dominated occupations.

In this paper we introduce a new way to conceptualize and measure the educational resources that young people encounter as they make their way from kindergarten to high school graduation. Using recent methodological advances in group-based modeling and a unique data set, we empirically test for and identify a series of categorically distinct school characteristic trajectories. We find that these trajectories vary significantly in terms of their intercept and slope, their prevalence within the sampled population, and in the sociodemographic makeup of their constituent members. We then present an extended empirical example illustrating relationships between school characteristic trajectories and important post-secondary educational outcomes, both before and after controlling for static, single-year measures of primary and secondary school characteristics. Our results suggest that the chronology of students' exposures to different educational resources is significantly associated with college enrollment, college selectivity, and, in some instances, college completion. (C) 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Buenos Aires and Chicago grew during the nineteenth century for remarkably similar reasons. Bothcities were conduits for moving meat and grain from fertile hinterlands to eastern markets. However,despite their initial similarities, Chicago was vastly more prosperous for most of the 20th century.Can the differences between the cities after 1930 be explained by differences in the cities before thatdate? We highlight four major differences between Buenos Aires and Chicago in 1914. Chicago wasslightly richer, and significantly better educated. Chicago was more industrially developed, with about2.25 times more capital per worker. Finally, Chicagos political situation was far more stable andit wasnt a political capital. Human capital seems to explain the lions share of the divergent pathof the two cities and their countries, both because of its direct effect and because of the connectionbetween education and political instability.

Economic, political, cultural, and environmental distinctiveness may attract highquality workers and firms as well as reflect a region's export viability. We hypothesize that local consumption activity can be a source of such distinctiveness and thus of long-term growth and stability, and that specialization does not reflect export activity alone. Using skewness across metropolitan regions in the United States as a distinctiveness measure, we show that some occupations are more lopsided in their distribution than others. Because some highly skewed occupations like health care support workers and artists, media, entertainment, and sports workers are known to be chiefly local-serving; their regional significance can be attributed to variations in residents' local consumption spending rather than export demand. We conclude that economic development practitioners should weigh the considerable investments, including subsidies and tax incentives, made in wooing and retaining presumptive export base activities against those that might target distinctive local consumption activities.

Objectives: We investigate how much state-to-state elderly migration patterns have changed during 1970-2000 and compare the findings that emerge from using two commonly-used sources of data, the Census flow tabulations and the integrated public use micro samples (IPUMS). Methods: We calculate descriptive statistics such as migration rates, the distribution of top destination and origin states, and a new migration HHI that measures geographic concentration. Comparisons over time, across age groups and between data sources are formalized using correlations and regression analyses that permit persistent flow patterns. Results: After an increase between 1970 and 1980, elderly migration rates have been stable, with a slight decline. Elderly migration has become less geographically concentrated; the decline of California and Florida and ascension of Nevada and the Carolinas as top destinations is evident. Correlation and regression analyses reveal that migration patterns are overall very persistent over time, especially using Census tabulations based on a larger sample. Discussion: Elderly (and non-elderly) migration patterns have been quite stable since 1970. Using the IPUMS exaggerates the changes in elderly migration over time in both descriptive and statistical analyses, a result that is likely due to its smaller sample size and the relative rarity of an interstate move.

Over the last forty years, state income tax breaks targeting the elderly have grown, often justifiedby arguments that the elderly move across state lines in response. Using three complementarysources of elderly migration data and several measures of elderly income tax breaks, weinvestigate the relationship between these tax breaks and migration. We employ differentempirical methodologies that emphasize changes over time, including panel regression modelsspanning four censuses and descriptive difference-in-difference/DDD analyses using a recentpolicy change. Our results are overwhelming in their failure to reveal any consistent effect ofstate income tax breaks on elderly interstate migration.

It has been suggested in the literature that taxes and subsidies play an important role in explaining the differences in working hours across countries. In this paper I test whether public programmes for family support play a role in explaining this variation. I analyse two types of policies: childcare subsidies and family cash benefits. As fiscal policies are correlated with other country-level institutions, the effects of family policies on working hours are difficult to identify with aggregate data. I therefore distinguish between people with children and people without children. Childcare subsidies should increase working hours in the economy and these effects should differ between people with children and people without children. Public support to families is also expected to decrease the amount of time people spend in childcare at home. I test this using household data for a set of European countries and the US. Empirical analysis, however, does not support the family-policy explanation. The effects of the policies on working hours are weak and insignificant. In regressions with time spent caring for children as a dependent variable, the estimates of the effects contradict the predictions of the theory. I conclude that family policies are not helpful in explaining the variation in working hours across countries.

This study provides a quantitative perspective on the Chinese American migratory system of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including the magnitude of various means for evading the U.S. embargo on Chinese immigration. Three sources are explored, including federal immigration summaries, census microdata, and a sample of person-voyage records for steamship arrivals at the port of San Francisco (n = 5,707). Whereas parameter estimates vary among the sources from nearly twofold (gross migration) up to fourfold (net migration), all results are consistent with a revolving-door system in which young male workers arrived as replacements for departing older male workers.

This article axiomatically derives a class of numerical indices of integration (equality) in the distribution of different types of workers across occupations. The associated segregation (inequality) indices parallel one form of multidimensional generalized Gini inequality indices. A comparison is made with the other Gini-related segregation indices. A numerical illustration of the family of indices is also provided using US occupational data.

American metropolitan areas have experienced rising residential segregation by income since 1970. One potential explanation for this change is growing income inequality. However, measures of residential sorting are typically mechanically related to the income distribution, making it difficult to identify the impact of inequality on residential choice. This paper presents a measure of residential segregation by income, the Centile Gap Index (CGI), which is based on income percentiles. Using the CGI, I find that a one standard deviation increase in income inequality raises residential income segregation by 0.40.9 standard deviations. Inequality at the top of the distribution is associated with more segregation of the rich, while inequality at the bottom and declines in labor demand for less-skilled men are associated with residential isolation of the poor. Inequality can fully explain the rise in income segregation between 1970 and 2000.

Urbanization economies the effects on productivity and utility created endogenously bylarger cities are a fundamental component of both the economic geography of modernsocieties and the perpetuation of innovation and economic growth at a national level. Citiesaccount for vast majorities of population and even larger proportions of production andinnovation in all advanced economies. The nature of these endogenous effects of city sizeis thus of considerable importance. Krupka (2008) presents a general model in whichexogenous variation in local productivity (natural advantage) and development constraintsgenerate covariation in local incomes, housing prices and population. In that model, thestrength of the correlation amongst these variables depends on the nature of the dominanturbanization economy (or diseconomy). This paper looks at the data over the last severaldecades and finds that the data is consistent with city size increasing consumer/residenthappiness and/or reducing productivity of employers.

This paper introduces a micro-simulation of job-worker matching with intermediaries (i.e., temp agencies). While many suggest that firms hire workers through intermediaries to save money on compensation, this paper finds that in a world of limited information and geographically limited job search, intermediaries' human resources ability could be a strong enough incentive, independent of compensation. The study also has some auxiliary findings showing that traditional fee structures encourage firms to use intermediaries for low-skill hires and that firms are more likely to use intermediaries when there is more worker heterogeneity. In the empirical analysis, it becomes clear that studies' estimates of indirect employment in the United States are inconsistent, partly because individuals are uncertain of their contractual status and their employer.Keywords: atypical employment; contractors; intermediaries; outsourcing

Driven by the need to understand change within domains there is emerging research on methods which aim at analyzing how patterns and in particular itemsets evolve over time. In practice, however, these methods suffer from the problem that many of the observed changes in itemsets are temporally redundant in the sense that they are the side-effect of changes in other itemsets, hence making the identification of the fundamental changes difficult. As a solution we propose temporally closed itemsets, a novel approach for a condensed representation of itemsets which is based on removing temporal redundancies. We investigate how our approach relates to the well-known concept of closed itemsets if the latter would be directly generalized to account for the temporal dimension. Our experiments support the theoretical results by showing that the set of temporally closed itemsets is significantly smaller than the set of closed itemsets.