Students enrolled in a graduate seminar benefited in multiple ways from an intensive 3-day field trip to Washington, DC. Constructed around the theme of environmental justice, the trip gave students a chance to learn about street tree distribution, park quality, and racial segregation “up close.” Working with personnel from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service, they learned how to design and carry out a street tree survey and assess the condition of park resources. Students were also given the opportunity to collect primary data at 2 local archives. The experience enhanced their understanding of historical environmental processes and allowed them to interact with resource managers in a “real world” setting.

Historical census data captures information about our ancestors. They help social scientists to understand how our ancestors lived, as well as the economic, social, and demographic features of their society.1 Invaluable as they are, census returns are still only snapshots of moments in time. The value of these snapshots is greatly enhanced, however, if they can be linked to the same individuals, families, and households over several censuses. Linked censuses can provide social scientists with new insights into the dynamic character of social, economic, and demographic change, and enable researchers to reconstruct the key life course events of large numbers of individuals, households, and families at levels of detail far beyond the scopeof traditional methods of historical research.2:3 They may even facilitate epidemiological studies of the genetic factors of diseases such as cancer, diabetes, or mental illnesses.

We examine Becker's (1960) contention that children are "normal." For the cross-section of non-Hispanic white married couples in the United States, we show that when we restrict comparisons to similarly educated women living in similarly expensive locations, completed fertility is positively correlated with the husband's income. The empirical evidence is consistent with children being "normal." In an effort to show causal effects, we analyze the localized impact on fertility of the mid-1970s' increase in world energy prices, an exogenous shock that substantially increased men's incomes in the Appalachian coal-mining region. Empirical evidence for that population indicates that fertility increases with men's income.

Most scholarship on racial segregation in U.S. cities retraces the Great Migration from the rural South to the urbanizing, industrializing North. It identifies residential, occupational, and entrepreneurial patterns typical of the South, and very different residential, occupational, and entrepreneurial patterns of the North. Arlington County, Virginia, adjacent to the federal government and to the large, prosperous African American community in Washington, D.C., provides a unique opportunity to study processes that transcended this dichotomy. Combining both qualitative and quantitative research methods and mixed data sources, this program of research discovered that life for African Americans in Arlington, Virginia, during segregation was largely determined by the County's unique context.

We show that a life cycle model with home production implies a tight relationship between key preference parameters and the changes in time allocated to home production and leisure at retirement. We derive this relationship and use data from the ATUS to explore its quantitative implications. Our method implies that the intertemporal elasticity of substitution for leisure is quite large, in excess of one and possibly as high as two.

This article applies the tenets of Massey's (1999) cumulative causation theory of migration to explain variation in aggregate patterns of Mexican migration to U.S. metropolitan destinations during the late 1990s. Analogous to sending contexts, results suggest that the dynamics of migration vary substantially with the maturity of the Mexican settlement community within destinations (approximated here using characteristics of the resident Mexican-origin population and distance from the Mexican border). The rate of immigration between 1995 and 2000 was determined overwhelmingly by the rate a decade earlier, but the extent to which this was the case depended significantly on the level of destination settlement maturity. The immigration rate into newly emerging destinations was governed to a greater extent by pull factors in the local labor and housing market (e.g., unemployment and cost of living) than in more established destinations where the rate of immigration varied largely independently of such factors. Settlement maturity played a more direct role in explaining variation in the demographic composition of new immigration flows, and was inversely related to the percentage of adult inflows comprising unaccompanied males. The results are consistent with the hypothesis recently advanced by Light (2006), asserting that migratory shifts away from traditional destinations beginning in the late 1990s were driven, at least in part, by saturation of labor and housing markets resulting from network-driven migration. Implications of the findings for related avenues of research are discussed.

This paper develops a learning model of cultural change to investigate why women's labor force participation (LFP) and attitudes toward womens work both changed dramatically. In the model, women's beliefs about the long-run payoff from working evolve endogenously via an intergenerational learning process. This process generically generates the data's S-shaped LFP curve and introduces a novel role for wage changes via their effect on the speed of intergenerational learning. The calibrated model does a good job of replicating the evolution of female LFP in the United States over the last 120 years and finds that the new role for wages was quantitatively significant.

This supplement is the second CDC Health Disparities and Inequalities Report (CHDIR). The 2011 CHDIR was the first CDC report to assess disparities across a wide range of diseases, behavioral risk factors, environmental exposures, social determinants, and health-care access (CDC. CDC Health Disparities and Inequalities ReportUnited States, 2011. MMWR 2011;60[Suppl; January 14, 2011]). The 2013 CHDIR provides new data for 19 of the topics published in 2011 and 10 new topics. When data were available and suitable analyses were possible for the topic area, disparities were examined for population characteristics that included race and ethnicity, sex, sexual orientation, age, disability, socioeconomic status, and geographic location. The purpose of this supplement is to raise awareness of differences among groups regarding selected health outcomes and health determinants and to prompt actions to reduce disparities. The findings in this supplement can be used by practitioners in public health, academia and clinical medicine; the media; the general public; policymakers; program managers; and researchers to address disparities and help all persons in the United States live longer, healthier, and more productive lives.

Objectives: This research article tests Litwak and Longinos first-move hypothesis by taking chain migration into account. Besides adding to the body of literature examining later-life migration and disability using large-scale and current data, my scholarly contribution is noteworthy because this analysis is among the handful which accounts for the influence of historical flows. Methods: Using the American Community Survey (ACS) from 2006 to 2007,the author employs multinomial logit (MNL) to test the likelihood of migrating within the state, outside the state, Florida, or Arizona based on mobility difficulty, personal care limitation, physical limitation, and cognitive difficulty. In addition, the author constructs chain migration variables from Census inflowoutflow tabulations and Internal Revenue Service (IRS) county-to-county migration files. Results: The descriptive statistics and MNL estimates show the probability of migration is greater for individuals with fewer disabilities (i.e., better health), even after controlling for long-standing patterns of established inflows. More specifically, migration to Florida is greater for those without physical limitations and cognitive difficulties, married, with greater income, and higher education levels. Interestingly, the author discovers migration to Floridaremains high despite disability status, if and only if the individual comes from an Downloaded from area of chain migration. Discussion: Given the first wave of the baby boomgeneration having reached retirement age in 2011 and a steady increase in these numbers for the upcoming few decades, examining this groups geographic mobility serves a practical purpose for economic growth. Several independentstudies show migrating retirees boost local businesses and provide increased sales tax revenue. However, states must balance this financial gain with increased use of health services, roadways, and community resources.

AbstractProcedures to anonymize data sets are vital for companies, government agencies and other bodies to meet their obligations to share data without compromising the privacy of the individuals contributing to it. Despite much work on this topic, the area has not yet reached stability. Early models (k-anonymity and `-diversity) are now thought to offer insufficient privacy. Noise-based methods like differential privacy are seen as providing stronger privacy, but less utility. However, across all methods sensitive information of some individuals can often be inferred with relatively high accuracy.In this paper, we reverse the idea of a privacy attack, by incorporating it into a measure of privacy. Hence, we advocate the notion of empirical privacy, based on the posterior beliefs of an adversary, and their ability to draw inferences about sensitive values in the data. This is not a new model, but rather a unifying view: it allows us to study several well-known privacy models which are not directly comparable otherwise. We also consider an empirical approach to measuring utility, based on a workload of queries. Consequently, we are able to place different privacy models including differential privacy and early syntactic models on the same scale, and compare their privacy/utility tradeoff. We learn that, in practice, the difference between differential privacy and various syntactic models is less dramatic than previously thought, but there are still clear domination relations between them.

In this article we examine the progress of African–Americans in the American labour market over the course of the twentieth century. We trace their progress as African-Americans moved from low-skill lowwage jobs in southern agriculture to a panoply of jobs including highskill, high-wage jobs in industries and occupations across the country. We also document the migrations and improvements in educational achievement that have made this progress possible. We examine the progress yet to be made and especially the problems of lack of education and incarceration suffered by African–American males. Finally, we examine the importance of anti-discrimination laws and affirmative action in promoting African–American economic progress.

Do urban or suburban neighborhoods provide greater access to organizations that offer immigrants needed services throughout various stages of the integration process? We pose this question in the face of historical shifts in immigration patterns: the bypassing of central cities for the suburbs as the direct site of immigrant settlement. In asking this question, we are concerned with immigrant resources as one aspect of neighborhood advantage. Using American Community Survey 2005-2009 five year estimates and original data of immigrant organizations in the Philadelphia region, we employ a method of spatial "buffering" to examine the distribution of immigrant organizations in greater Philadelphia region, including the cities of Philadelphia, PA, Camden, NJ, and Wilmington, DE and their surrounding suburbs. Our results reveal a critical spatial mismatch between current patterns of direct immigrant settlement in suburbs and a persistent urban advantage in access to immigrant resources. In the Philadelphia region, urban areas have, on average, approximately an additional 1.14 more organizations per census tract when compared to non-urban tracts, controlling for neighborhood characteristics. We find that this urban advantage varies by resource type. While for cultural maintenance organizations the urban advantage is only 0.9 additional organizations in urban tracts over suburban tracts, for subsistence and mobility organizations that provide immigrants essential services, the urban advantage more than doubles, with 2.0 more subsistence and 1.9 more mobility organizations in urban tracts compared to suburban ones. Suburban landscapes present far greater challenges to immigrant newcomers in terms of access to resources than urban landscapes so. The urban bias also varies by ethnic orientation of organizations. Organizations focused on providing resources to Asian and European immigrants have a stronger urban bias than those focused on providing resources to Latino and African immigrants, while organizations providing resources for all immigrants regardless of ethnicity have the strongest urban bias, with 1.6 more of these general organizations in urban tracts compared to suburban tracts. Last, we find that neighborhood poverty affects this relationship across groups differently, such that increases in poverty are positively linked to greater access to immigrant organizations providing services for Latino and African immigrants, but negatively linked to greater access to immigrant organizations aimed at serving Asian or European immigrants. We conclude by discussing the implications of these findings for understanding the unique contours of immigrant integration within a new and changing suburban context.

The color line has long served as a metaphor for the starkness of black/white relations in the United States. Yet post-1965 increases in U.S. immigration have brought millions whose ethnoracial status seems neither black nor white, boosting ethnoracial diversity and potentially changing the color line. After reviewing past and current conceptualizations of America's racial divide(s), we ask what recent trends in intermarriage and multiracial identification both indicators of ethnoracial boundary dissolution reveal about ethnoracial color lines in today's immigrant America. We note that rises in intermarriage and multiracial identification have emerged more strongly among Asians and Latinos than blacks and in more diverse metropolitan areas. Moreover, these tendencies are larger than would be expected based solely on shifts in the relative sizes of ethnoracial groups, suggesting that immigrationgenerated diversity is associated with cultural change that is dissolving ethnoracial barriers but more so for immigrant groups than blacks.

Efforts to estimate the degree to which local property taxes are capitalized into house values are complicated by any spurious correlation between property taxes and unobserved public services. One public service of particular interest is the provision of local public schools. Not only do public schools bulk large in the local property tax bill, but the inherent difficulty in measuring school quality has potentially undermined earlier attempts at achieving unbiased estimates of property tax capitalization. This particular problem has been of special concern since Oates (1969) seminal paper.We sidestep the problem of omitted or misspecified measures of school quality by focusing on a segment of the housing market that likely places little-to-no value on school quality: small homes. Because few households residing in small homes have public school children, we anticipate that variations in their value does not account for differentials in public school quality. Using restricted-access microdata provided by the U.S. Census, and a quasi-experimental identification strategy, we estimate that local property taxes are nearly fully capitalized into the prices of small homes.

Since the 1980s a reverse gender gap has emerged in post-secondary completion, with women obtaining Bachelors degrees at increasingly higher rates than men. Many suggest this creates a smaller market of marriageable men. Using IPUMS census data for female respondents, I find that as relative education levels increase for women, educational hypogamy has not increased drastically but divorce rates have increased and marriage has become less common. I also find that educational hypogamy has a negative association with marital happiness, and also may have a negative association on the likelihood of getting divorced, while educational hypergamy seems to have a positive association. The effects of age on the model were not very pronounced. Work hypogamy, meanwhile, is associated with an increased likelihood of divorce. It is likely that work hypogamy among women, as it is much rarer than educational hypogamy, is still stigmatized in some way.

We consider two life cycle models of labor supply that use nonconvexities to generate retirement. In each case we derive a link between hours worked prior to retirement, the intertemporal elasticity of substitution for labor (IES), and the size of the nonconvexities. This link is robust to allowing for credit constraints and human capital accumulation by younger workers and suggests values for the IES that are .75 or higher.

The Massachusetts health care reform of 2006 dramatically increased health insurance coverage rates statewide. The legislation required employers with 11 or more full-time-equivalent employees to supply health insurance to their workers or face a tax. While research has shown improvements in coverage, there has been little examination of the impact on firm behavior as a result of these new obligations. Using data from the March Current Population Survey from 2003 to 2012, I examine how the reform impacted firm size and par-time work. My results suggest that while the reform did not impact these variables in aggregate, certain demographics-particularly low-skilled workers-were less likely to work for small firms and more likely to work part-time as a result of the reform.