Just how much the colonial American economy depended on the labor of white children remains an open question, especially for the later eighteenth century, which most historians of education consider a period of increased schooling. The diary of Quincy Thaxter, the twelve-year-old younger son of an affluent Hingham farmer, local official, and Harvard graduate, offers insight into his work regime and that of neighborhood youth as well as information on his attendance at the nearby school. The diary suggests that boys aged ten to fifteen constituted about one-fifth of the local agricultural labor force. Though Massachusetts led the British colonies in its enthusiasm for education and Quincy's father could have afforded to hire a worker in place of his son, he did not. Even in well-off rural New England households with a dedication to learning, more importance was placed on farm tasks than on regularized schooling or the timely acquisition of the penmanship, spelling, and grammatical skills required of anyone keeping accounts or performing official duties in the community. The nature of eighteenth-century classroom pedagogy may have had something to do with the desultory attitude toward formal instruction.

Event history analyses and difference-in-proportions tests are used to analyze 1994−2003 data from the Health and Retirement Survey. For young-old metropolitan adults who had never retired, self-rated health (SRH) was unrelated to the odds of becoming a migrant, but for those who had retired, better SRH raised the odds. Neither SRH nor its interwave change was related to the risk of a nonmetro or metro destination. Metro-metro and metro-nonmetro migrants were indistinguishable in their recalled reasons for migration. The implications of the findings for theory and future research are discussed.

Many American communities seek to attract or retain businesses with tax abatements, tax credits, or tax increment financing of infrastructure projects (TIFs). The evidence for 1999 indicates that communities are most likely to offer one or more of these business development incentives if their residents have low incomes, if they are located close to state borders, and if their states have troubled political cultures. Ten percent greater median household income is associated with a 3.2 percent lower probability of offering incentives; ten percent greater distance from a state border is associated with a 1.0 percent lower probability of offering incentives; and a 10 percent higher rate at which government officials are convicted of federal corruption crimes is associated with a 1.2 percent greater probability of offering business incentives. TIFs are the preferred incentive of communities whose residents have household incomes between $25,000 and $75,000; whereas TIFs are much less commonly offered by communities whose residents have household incomes below $25,000. The need to finance TIFs out of incremental tax revenues may make it infeasible for many of the poorest of communities to use TIFs for local business development.

Recessions can alter family life by constraining the choices that individuals and couples make concerning their family lives and by activating the familys role as an emergency support system. Both effects were visible during and after the Great Recession. Fertility declined by 9 to 11 percent, depending on the measure, and the decline was greater in states that experienced higher increases in unemployment. The decline was greater among younger women, which suggests postponement rather than forgoing of births. The fall in fertility was sharpest for Hispanics, a result the authors attribute to a drop in Mexican immigration, which reduced the number of recent immigrants, the group with the highest fertility. Substantial increases occurred in the percentage of young adults, single and married, who lived with their parents, augmenting a long-term trend toward intergenerational coresidence. There was a slight decline in divorce and separation in states with higher unemployment.

Over the past forty years, the U.S. has seen the passage of several significant pieces of legislation aimed at improving educational and employment outcomes among people with disabilities. Current trends show that, while the share of working-aged adults with disabilities who have obtained at least some post-secondary education has doubled, the share who are working has fallen sharply. This study examines whether cohorts of young adults with disabilities -- that is, those who have come of age under different sets of policy and institutional regimes -- demonstrate important variations in education and employment outcomes that period trends disguise.

This study aims to document the lived experiences of Latino youth as they navigate environments that are impacted by anti-immigrant sentiment and increased documentation enforcement. The current literature, while limited, suggests that antiimmigrant sentiment and increased enforcement compound other stressors experienced by Latino immigrants to negatively impact the mental health of children, youth and adults (APA, 2012; Suarez-Orozco et al., 2011; Yoshikawa, 2011). However, the literature has not systematically explored the experiences of children and youth who are affected personally or vicariously through impacts on their community. When studies do focus on the contextual and psychological factors, they do not address the ways in which Latino youth confront discrimination by creating alternative spaces in order to foster resilience and empowerment. Increasingly, developmental literatures and those focused on physical and mental health impacts of social discrimination use ecological models to address the interweaving of social experiences as these impact both private, psychological dimensions, and external, realistic dimensions of lived experiences. To address the gap in the literature, this study applied an ecological approach to Latino immigrant youth experiences of stressors associated with documentation status, applying these frameworks first to review relevant interdisciplinary literatures in ways that explore social factors and psychological impacts, and then to guide areas of inquiry exploring youth experiences. The study used focus group methods, conducting two groups with 14 Latino college students, to explore how immigrant youth experience intensified documentation enforcement and anti-immigrant sentiment, the risk factors they grapple with on a daily basis as they navigate their social environments, as well as the protective factors that encourage healthy development and resilience. All participants were born in the US (n = 10) or currently documented (n = 4). All participants reported different levels of exposure to risk of deportation, starting with immediate and extended family. However, all were very aware of the range of restrictions and penalties imposed on their undocumented community. Participants also shared feeling excluded from the mainstream Euro-American social environment because of acts of discrimination and microaggressions. Finally, participants also identified ways in which they respond to the exclusion by developing strategies of resistance.

Contemporary criminological research on immigration has focused largely on one aspect of the immigration process, namely, the impact of in-migration (i.e., presence or arrival) of foreign-born individuals on crime. A related but understudied aspect of the immigration process is the impact that the removal of certain segments of the foreign-born population, and specifically undocumented or deportable aliens, has on aggregate levels of criminal violence. In an effort to cast new light on the association between forced out-flows of immigrants and crime, we begin with descriptive analyses of patterns of deportation activity across the continental United States over an eleven-year period (19942004). We then examine the relationship between deportation activity and violent crime rates in a multilevel framework wherein Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs) are situated within border patrol sectors. The results of dynamic regression modeling indicate that changing levels of deportation activity are unrelated to changing levels of criminal violence for the sample of MSAs for the national at large. However, we also detect significant interactions by geographic location for selected violent offenses. For MSAs within sectors along the Mexican border, the deportation measure exhibits a significant negative effect on one indicator of criminal violencethe aggravated assault rate. For MSAs within non-border sectors, the effect of the deportation measures is significantly positive for the violence crime index and the aggravated assault rate. Overall, our analyses indicate that the relationship between deportation and criminal violence is complex and dependent on local context.

We provide the first estimates of the effect of statutes requiring English as the language of instruction and compulsory schooling laws on the school enrollment, work, literacy and English fluency of immigrant children during the Americanization period (1910-1930). English-only statutes moderately increased the literacy of certain foreign-born children, particularly those living in cities or whose parents were not fluent in English. However, these laws had no impact on immigrants eventual labor market outcomes or measures of social integration (from 1940 census and WWII enlistment records). Only laws regulating the age when children could work significantly affected immigrant outcomes.

This study examines the long-term trends of two parallel and related gender effects, in light of the hypothesis that highly rewarded occupations will be the most penalized by the process of feminization. Using multilevel models of the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series data from 1970 to 2007, the study analyzes trends in women's occupational mobility and juxtaposes these trends with trends in the effects of feminization on occupational pay across diverse occupational wage groups. The findings reveal two opposing processes of gender (in)equality: during this period, many women had impressive success in entering highly rewarded occupations. Simultaneously, however, the negative effect of feminization on the pay levels of these occupations intensified, particularly in high-paid and male-typed occupations. Consequently, women found themselves moving up the down staircase. The findings confirm the dynamic nature of gender discrimination and have broad implications for our understanding of the devaluation and exclusion mechanisms discussed in earlier literature.

Hysterectomies are the second most common surgery performed on women in the United States, and most are done for elective reasons. Although women with disabilities appear to have an increased risk of undergoing the procedure, little research has evaluated the relationship between disability and hysterectomy.

Our aim in this paper is to demonstrate the impact of Vietnam era active duty service on the later-life health of American veterans. Using the statistical technique of instrumental variables, we show that estimates of this impact from a simple evaluation do not accurately capture the causal impact. Simple estimates are biased down by the selection effects of recruitment into military service; no veterans were disabled at the time of their induction or they would not have qualified for service. We show that accounting for selection by recruits (who volunteer) and by the military (who enforce standards for enlistment) substantially increases estimates of the negative health effects of military service. We also find that service has different effects for Caucasian-American and African-American veterans.This paper contributes to a debate among economists over changes in the U.S. veterans disability system1-3. Some have argued that an over-generous system may have led to spurious claims of service-related disability. Our findings, particularly the different impact on different racial groups, do not provide support for this view, but are consistent with the notion that the earlier disability system was undergenerous, and the changes may represent a move towards greater equity.

Recreation demand such as national park visitation is influenced by various social, demographic, and economic factors. These key variables are important indicators in predicting future trends and provide beneficial information about potential park visitors for managers and planners. As parks and protected areas become impacted by socio-economic changes, it is important to understand the relationship between specific factors of recreation participation and national park visitation. From a practitioner perspective, recreation agencies require multi-scale levels of information in order to address visitor and facility needs. While site-based research or using disaggregated models are helpful to satisfy specific purposes for a park, they often do not provide this information in spatially distributed data on a statewide or regional level. Recreation planners and managers need recreation demand forecasts at levels of spatial aggregations. This study tried to identify the spatial relationships between national park visitation and its associated factors using large aggregated data. Guided by the idea of opportunity theory and Pigram’s conceptual framework, this study empirically investigated what and how factors associated with national park visitation influence demand within the Texas boundary. Specifically, this study developed a spatial regression model of national park visitation demand in Texas using Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR). This model estimated the strength of the relationship between visitation and selected demographic, socioeconomic and situational factors. Methodologically, traditional regression models (e.g., OLS) yield only a single estimate iii in a relationship. In comparison, GWR allows an estimate of the spatial variation of the relationship within the study area. Several private and public data sources were used in the model to create reliably aggregated data. Several explanatory variables, e.g., poverty rate, family structures, recreation-related spending patterns and level of education, were hypothesized to influence the level of national park visitation for spatially varying relationships across the study area. From a methodological perspective, this study found interesting methodological implications (e.g., rethinking the traditional regression model for recreation demand estimation) and the potential associated with the use of spatial statistics to analyze the relationships between recreation participation and societal factors. This research demonstrated the importance of including spatial variables as part of recreation demand analysis. Relatively little work has used spatial models in the field of recreation. The results of this study demonstrate the usefulness of spatial analysis for detecting various relationships within the state over traditional statistical analysis.

We introduce a life course, multimethod approach to examine the living arrangements of middle-aged and older American Indian and European women living on the rugged North Dakotan settlement frontier around 1910. Our model suggests that womens later life circumstances reflect the long arm of institutional forces and their ethnicity/nativity, which anchors resource advantages and disadvantages (access to land, rail, and markets) and confers gender socialization (norms and practices) that reproduce gendered social roles. Drawing from primary and secondary sources, we find that European and American Indian women were selectively drawn to or (re)located on frontier spaces unevenly by ethnicity/nativity via timing and place of settlement effects. Old-age living arrangements then directly reflected county of location resources and womens own adoption of family roles and gendered life events, such as parenthood and widowhood. Overall, rather than finding homogeneous settler versus colonized identities constituted by the otherness of each group involved, we find great diversity within and across ethnic/nativity groups. This does not preclude grievous social and ethnic inequalities.

Labor market attachment differs significantly between African-American males and white males; there are various reasons that account for the wage differential. It has long been agreed that the Mincer equation method, which analyzes earnings by using experience and education levels, is very reliable. Is it only these two variables that account for the wage inequality? For instance, does discrimination exist in the labor market? And is there any improvement in the measurement of experience variables that will affect the result? In this paper, I will generate accumulated experience variables in order to compare them to potential experience variables. I will find out whether racial wage differential still exists after using adjusted accumulated models.

OBJECTIVEdTo examine racial differences in sleep duration and its relationship with diabetes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODSdWe used data from a nationally representative sample of U.S. adults (n = 130,943) participating in the National Health Interview Survey from 2004 to 2011. Usual sleep duration was self-reported and categorized as ,7 h (short), 7 h (optimal), and .7 h (long). Diabetes status was based on self-reported diagnosis from a health professional. RESULTSdParticipants’ mean age was 50.6 years, 49% were men, and 13% were black. Compared with whites, blacks were more likely to report short sleep (37 vs. 28%) and less likely to get 7 h of sleep (24 vs. 33%). Diabetes (9,643 cases [9%] in whites and 3,612 cases [15%] in blacks) had a U-shaped distribution with sleep in whites (10, 7, and 9%, for short, optimal, and long sleep, respectively) and blacks (16, 13, and 15%). Suboptimal sleep dura- tion was more strongly associated with diabetes in whites than in blacks among short (prev- alence ratio 1.49 [95% CI 1.40–1.58] vs. 1.21 [1.09–1.34]) and long (1.32 [1.25–1.40] vs. 1.11 [1.00–1.23]) sleepers on the relative scale. Adjustment for socioeconomic status (SES) attenuated the short sleep–diabetes association in blacks (1.15 [1.02–1.29]), and the racial/ ethnic difference in the short sleep–diabetes association became nonsignificant after SES adjustments. CONCLUSIONSdSuboptimal sleep duration was positively associated with diabetes in blacks and whites, although diabetes prevalence was higher at any level of sleep in blacks. Socioeconomic factors appear to partly explain the association for short sleep in blacks as well as disparity between racial groups.

The recent public debt crisis in most developed economies implies an urgent need for increasing tax revenues or cutting government spending. In this paper we study the importance of household heterogeneity and the progressivity of the labor income tax schedule for the ability of the government to generate tax revenues. We develop an overlapping generations model with uninsurable idiosyncratic risk, endogenous human capital accumulation as well as labor supply decisions along the intensive and extensive margins. We calibrate the model to macro, micro and tax data from the US as well as X European countries, and then for each country characterize the labor income tax Laffer curve under the current country-specific choice of the progressivity of the labor income tax code. We find... (has to be updated as we go along).

More than three decades of health disparities research in the United States has consistently found lower adult mortality risks among Hispanics than their non-Hispanic white counterparts, despite lower socioeconomic status among Hispanics. Explanations for the Hispanic Paradox include selective migration and cultural factors, though neither has received convincing support. This paper uses a large nationally representative survey of health and smoking behavior to examine whether smoking can explain life expectancy advantage of Hispanics over US-born non-Hispanics whites, with special attention to individuals of Mexican origin. It tests the selective migration hypothesis using data on smoking among Mexico-to-US migrants in Mexico and the United States. Both US-born and foreign-born Mexican-Americans exhibit a life expectancy advantage vis--vis whites. All other Hispanics only show a longevity advantage among the foreign-born, while those born in the United States are disadvantaged relative to whites. Smoking-attributable mortality explains the majority of the advantage for Mexican-Americans, with more than 60% of the gap deriving from lower rates of smoking among Mexican-Americans. There is no evidence of selective migration with respect to smoking; Mexicans who migrate to the US smoke at similar rates to Mexicans who remain in Mexico, with both groups smoking substantially less than non-Hispanic whites in the US. The results suggest that more research is needed to effectively explain the low burden of smoking among Mexican-Americans in the United States.