The Historical Urban Ecological data set is a new resource detailing health and environmental conditions within seven major U.S. cities during the study period from 1830 to 1930. Researchers collected and digitized ward-level data from annual reports of municipal departments that detail the epidemiological, economic, and demographic conditions within each city. They then drafted new geographic information system data to link the tabular records to ward geographies. These data provide a new foundation to revisit questions surrounding the urban mortality transition and the growth of U.S. cities.

This brief offers new research to inform the debate about equity and the future of the American economy. Using data on income by race, we calculate what total earnings and economic output would have been for the nation in 2012 if racial differences were eliminated and all groups had similar average incomes as non-Hispanic whites. This analysis does not assume that everyone has the same income, rather that the income distributions do not differ by race and ethnicity. We also examine how much of the income gap is attributable to wage differences versus employment differences (measured by hours worked).

"""Saat ini semakin banyak riset di kalangan mahasiswa dan dunia bisnis yang dilakukan secara online atau melalui Internet. Untuk itu diperlukan buku acuan riset online yang berbasis pada aturan dan kaidah mettodologi riset yang benar. Buku ini menjawab persoalan tersebut karena memaparkan cara-cara melakukan riset online secara benar dan dapat dipertanggungjawabkan secara ilmiah. Selengkapnya buku ini berisi: - Pengertian riset online - Mekanisme dan prosedur riset online - Menentukan teknik sampling dalam riset online - Membuat instrumen koleksi data dalam riset online - Teknik-teknik koleksi data secara online - Model - Model analisis - Meningkatkan validitas riset online - Menempatkan laporan riset secara online - Keuntungan dan kerugian riset online - Menggunakan sumber daya internet untuk riset online - Aplikasi riset online untuk riset pemasaran - Kode etik riset online - Membuat aplikasi kuesioner elektronik dengan HTML, PHP dan CSS"""

The purpose of this Study is to empirically examine the diversity of the legal profession. The primary distinctive features of this empirical analysis are that it evaluates diversity in the legal profession by (a) carefully comparing it against other prestigious professions that have significant barriers to entry, and (b) focusing on young individuals who recently began their careers. These distinctions are made to isolate anomalies that are more likely caused by forces specific to the legal profession rather than general social forces that limit the eligibility of historically disadvantaged groups to pursue prestigious employment opportunities. Further, by narrowing our focus to attorneys who recently began their careers, we get a clearer picture of the current state of diversity. In contrast to prior studies, we find that, although woefully underrepresented as a whole in the legal profession, the representation of young African Americans and Hispanic Americans in the legal profession is comparable to the representation of these groups in other prestigious professions. This finding suggests that the underrepresentation of African Americans and Hispanic Americans in the legal profession may be caused primarily by social forces external to the legal profession, and that, in addition to continuing its current diversity efforts, the legal profession should put a concentrated emphasis on initiatives that assist these underrepresented groups to become eligible to pursue all types of prestigious employment opportunities that have significant barriers to entry. Further, we find that Asian Americans, in contrast to other minorities, are very poorly represented in the legal profession as compared to other prestigious professions. Finally, there is some evidence suggesting that women were relatively well represented in the legal profession when compared to other prestigious professions until recently, when they appear to have become slightly underrepresented. This recent drop may be caused by the failure of the legal profession to provide just and inclusive workplaces, leading to greater dissatisfaction and higher attrition rates among female associates.

Executive Summary Policies and programs aimed at increasing educational and economic opportunities typically target either low-income children or their mothers, but not both, which limits their impact in fostering intergenerational mobility. This insight undergirds the development and implementation of dual-generation strategies, which focus simultaneously on both children and mothers to foster long-term learning and economic success for low-income families. The results in this report highlight the need for dual-generation strategies, based on the first-ever analysis of 13 economic, education, and health indicators for children whose mothers have not graduated from high school, compared to children whose mothers have higher levels of education. The enormous disparities in well-being identified here point toward the value and need for comprehensive dual-generation strategies that offer high-quality PreK-3 rd education for children, effective job training for parents that leads directly to well-paid work, and additional public services-such as health, nutrition, food, and housing-which enable low-income families to overcome barriers to success. There already exist a wide range of policies and programs that could be coordinated and integrated to create dual-generation strategies. But a major step forward will require more flexible, integrated, and supportive federal, state, and local policy structures. One in every eight children in the U.S. (12 percent) lives with a mother who has not graduated from high school. These children experience especially large disparities compared to children whose mothers have a bachelor degree. Key findings include the following: Family Economic Resources Disparities separating children whose (1) mothers had not graduated from high school, compared to those whose (2) mothers had a bachelor degree were, respectively: • 53 vs. 4 percent for the official federal poverty rate • 84 vs. 13 percent for the low-income rate (that is, family income below twice the official federal poverty threshold) • $25,000 vs. $106,500 for median family income • 48 vs. 11 percent for the rate of not having a securely employed parent in the home (that is, not having a parent who works full-time year-around)

Few books have ever made their presence felt on college campuses and newspaper opinion pages as quickly and thoroughly as Richard Arum and Josipa Roksas 2011 landmark study of undergraduates learning, socialization, and study habits, Academically Adrift: Limited Learning on College Campuses. From the moment it was published, one thing was clear: no university could afford to ignore its well-documented and disturbing findings about the failings of undergraduate education. Now Arum and Roksa are back, and their new book follows the same cohort of undergraduates through the rest of their college careers and out into the working world. Built on interviews and detailed surveys of almost a thousand recent college graduates from a diverse range of colleges and universities, Aspiring Adults Adrift reveals a generation facing a difficult transition to adulthood. Recent graduates report trouble finding decent jobs and developing stable romantic relationships, as well as assuming civic and financial responsibility yet at the same time, they remain surprisingly hopeful and upbeat about their prospects. Analyzing these findings in light of students performance on standardized tests of general collegiate skills, selectivity of institutions attended, and choice of major, Arum and Roksa not only map out the current state of a generation too often adrift, but enable us to examine the relationship between college experiences and tentative transitions to adulthood. Sure to be widely discussed, Aspiring Adults Adrift will compel us once again to re-examine the aims, approaches, and achievements of higher education.

The recent economic recession has led to increases in suicide, but whether US state unemployment insurance programs ameliorate this association has not been examined. Exploiting US state variations in the generosity of benefit programs between 1968 and 2008, we tested the hypothesis that more generous unemployment benefit programs reduce the impact of economic downturns on suicide. Using state linear fixed-effect models, we found a negative additive interaction between unemployment rates and benefits among the US working-age (2064 years) population ( = 0.57, 95% confidence interval: 0.86, 0.27; P < 0.001). The finding of a negative additive interaction was robust across multiple model specifications. Our results suggest that the impact of unemployment rates on suicide is offset by the presence of generous state unemployment benefit programs, though estimated effects are small in magnitude.

Elance and oDesk are the two largest online work marketplaces. They connect employers and freelancer workers and provide software tools to facilitate them working together online. On April 1, 2014, they merged. Prior to merging, these companies were fierce business competitors, and battling search advertisers, often targeting their ads at the same search terms on Google and other search engines. Figure 1.1 shows an example screenshot of a search engine results page for a search term where both Elance and oDesk ads appear. Before the merger, we conducted an experiment where we shut down Elances search advertising in half of the United States, randomized at the regional level. Following the conclusion of the experiment and the consummation of the merger, we gained access to oDesks advertising data and internal databases to assess the impact of the Elance experiment on oDesk. Access to data from two search advertising and business competitors is unique to our setting and central to our analysis.

Governments throughout the world intervene heavily in housing markets, and most have multiple policies to pursue multiple goals. This chapter deals with two of the largest types of housing policies in the United States, namely, low-income rental assistance and policies to promote homeownership through interventions in mortgage markets. We describe the rationales for the policies, the nature of the largest programs involved, the empirical evidence on their effects, and the data and methods used to obtain them. Because the U.S. government uses such a wide range of policies of these types, this evidence has lessons for housing policy in other countries.

We report the results of a historical investigation and quantification of discontinuous evolution, and a gap statistic analysis of discontinuities, on city size distributions of the city system in Texas, USA, over a 160-year period from 1850 to 2010. The growth of the city system exhibits four stages that are evident from our quantitative analysis of the convergence of population in large cities and qualitative analysis of historical socioeconomic and technological developments. The decadal city size distributions in the aggregate evolve with a persistent pattern while individual cities over time shift positions in the urban hierarchy as the result of adapting or passing growth opportunities in infrastructure innovations, economic change, and industrial transformations. These decadal city size distributions exhibit persistent discontinuities that mainly occur in the upper and lower tails. The observed patterns and discontinuities are indicative of the stability and resilience of a complex adaptive system of cities.

Chay, Guryan and Mazumder (2009) found substantial racial convergence in AFQT and NAEP scores across cohorts born in the 1960's and early 1970's that was concentrated among blacks in the South. We demonstrated a close tracking between variation in the test score convergence across states and racial convergence in measures of health and hospital access in the years immediately after birth. This study analyzes whether the across-cohort patterns in the black-white education and earnings gaps match those in early life health and test scores already established. It also addresses caveats in the earlier study, such as unobserved selection into taking the AFQT and potential discrepancies between state-of-birth and state-of-test taking. With Census data, we find: i) a significant narrowing across the same cohorts in education gaps driven primarily by a relative increase in the probability of blacks going to college; and ii) a similar convergence in relative earnings that is insensitive to adjustments for employment selection, as well as time and age effects that vary by race and state-of-residence. The variation in racial convergence across birth states matches the patterns in the earlier study. The magnitude of the earnings gains is greater than can be explained by only the black gains in education and test scores for reasonable estimates of the returns to human capital. This suggests that other pre-market, productivity factors also improved across successive cohorts of blacks born in the South between the early 1960's and early 1970's. Finally, our cohort-based hypothesis provides a cohesive explanation for the aggregate patterns in several, previously disconnected literatures.

Land-grant universities are distinctly American institutions of higher educationin two respects. First, the establishment of a land-grant university was an independentact by the US federal government that endowed specific counties across the country witha university. Second, their mission of inclusion, with an emphasis on the agricultural andmechanic arts, was designed to educate the industrial class for professional life. Despitethese institutions unique founding and mission, however, land-grant universities havereceived little specific attention in the broader literature on university impacts. Given thecomparatively little attention devoted to these institutions, the goal of this study is to usea descriptive and exploratory quasi-experimental analysis to evaluate the potential impactsof land-grant institutions on their local communities. The results of this analysis suggestthat land-grant universities do impact their local communities, but that these impacts didnot begin to appear until approximately sixty years after their initial founding.

This paper explores the extent to which unskilled internal migrants in the United States were motivated by the possibility of upward occupational mobility. Drawing on the literature on contemporary migrant selection and sorting, I argue that workers with greater potential for occupational upgrading may have selected themselves out of counties with low skill premiums and sorted themselves into counties with high skill premiums. Using linked data from the U.S. Census and county-level wage data, I present results consistent with this argument, with a focus on shorter distance movers. Conditioning on migrant status, I find that unskilled migrants who moved to places with high skill premiums were most likely to upgrade. I offer some evidence that migrant sorting explains much of this result. My results imply that previous research focusing solely on wage gains provides an incomplete picture of the factors motivating east west migration in nineteenth century America.

Causal estimates of the benefits of increased schooling using U.S. state schooling laws as instruments typically rely on specifications which assume common trends across states in the factors affecting different birth cohorts. Differential changes across states during this period, such as relative school quality improvements, suggest that this assumption may fail to hold. Across a number of outcomes including wages, unemployment, and divorce, we find that statistically significant causal estimates become insignificant and, in many instances, wrong-signed when allowing year of birth effects to vary across regions.

We use injury-level data from the 1997-2013 Integrated Health Interview Series (IHIS) to describe the prevalence of injuries, causes of injuries, and where they occurred among community-dwelling elders. We also describe the outcomes of these injuries, in terms of whether elders were hospitalized and how many days of work were lost due to injury.

The unemployment rate among college graduates is substantially lower than among workers with lower levels of schooling. The duration of unemployment, however, is surprisingly similar across education groups in the US. This paper quantifies the role of one economic mechanism shown to be able to predict the observed symmetry in hiring rates and the large differential in layoff and unemployment rates: occupation specific adjustment costs leading to differential labor hoarding. Recent empirical studies found that the largest component of labor adjustment costs are "adaptation costs" due to the relatively low productivity of newly hired workers. It has also been found that adaptation takes longer in complex, skilled jobs, which are usually filled by highly educated workers. The effect of adaptation on unemployment and turnover is calibrated using a search and matching model with endogenous job creation and job destruction. For the calibration, empirical measures of adaptation costs are used from a US employer survey, the Multi-City Study of Urban Inequality. Adaptation costs explain around one third of the unemployment gap between college and high school graduates in the baseline specification. The role of adaptation costs can be larger if the autocorrelation in match specific productivity is smaller. The calibrated model also predicts a reasonable wage-tenure profile, and, consistently with data, it predicts higher equilibrium separation rates among recently hired workers. Business cycle implications of adaptation costs are discussed, as well as mechanisms that can explain the rest of the educational gap in unemployment.

Since 1970, the share of income spent on housing grew along with incomes and the relative price of housing. This rising share is consistent with housing being a necessity when demand is sufficiently price inelastic. We estimate housing demand parameters using compensated and uncompensated frameworks over space and time, testing restrictions imposed by demand theory and household mobility. Estimates are largely consistent, suggesting that housing demand is slightly price and income inelastic, and obeying the restrictions of demand theory. We construct a non-homothetic constant-elasticity-of-substitution cost-of-living index that reflects housings greater importance when housing prices are high and incomes are low.

This study was a quantitative analysis of the alignment of Town Planning boards in relation to the changing demographics in Nassau County, Long Island, New York. The purpose of this researcher was to investigate how town plans align to the various changing demographics on Long Island. The purpose of the study is to examine the impact of the changing demographics in Nassau County, Long Island, New York. The researcher will look at planning boards within the three townships in Nassau County; Hempstead, North Hempstead, and Oyster Bay. Focusing on the demographic shifts that have taken place within these three townships, the researcher will study the impact of these changes and their implications for Oyster Bay, North Hempstead, and Hempstead Townships. The trends in population change will be researched. The time span will vary depending on the projections included in the plans studies. This study will look to examine whether the planning boards are aligned with the growing trends in preparing for the shifts that have taken place with relation to demographics. The study will focus on seven variables. These variables include population, age, finance, housing, income, employment, and education. The objective of the researcher is to ascertain how the changing demographics impact these variables and to determine which areas the subsequent planning boards address. What, if any, strategic foresight is present in the reports will be explored. The researcher will focus on the