Participation in high school sports and leadership activities is typically associated with later adult earnings premia. In stark contrast to the large but diminishing racial disadvantage found in other measures of educational opportunity, this analysis of high school leadership development finds few examples of racial disadvantage in historical 1960 data, but an emerging disadvantage to black female students between 1972 and 2004. Earnings regressions reveal positive earnings premia to black women who engaged in sports and leadership activities as adolescents, but not to black men. Particularly large premia to higher math scores (or penalties to lower math scores) among black workers are also observed. These findings call into question any world-view in which U.S. wages are a simple function of observable worker qualifications, and highlight the continued need to monitor equitable access to educational opportunities in U.S. schools.

Objectives. We investigated trends in the educational gradient of US adult mortality, which has increased at the national level since the mid-1980s, within US regions. Methods. We used data from the 1986–2006 National Health Interview Survey Linked Mortality File on non-Hispanic White and Black adults aged 45 to 84 years (n = 498 517). We examined trends in the gradient within 4 US regions by race–gender subgroup by using age-standardized death rates. Results. Trends in the gradient exhibited a few subtle regional differences. Among women, the gradient was often narrowest in the Northeast. The region’s distinction grew over time mainly because low-educated women in the Northeast did not experience a significant increase in mortality like their counterparts in other regions (particularly for White women). Among White men, the gradient narrowed to a small degree in the West. Conclusions. The subtle regional differences indicate that geographic context can accentuate or suppress trends in the gradient. Studies of smaller areas may provide insights into the specific contextual characteristics (e.g., state tax policies) that have shaped the trends, and thus help explain and reverse the widening mortality disparities among US adults.

The employer mandate within the Affordable Care Act (ACA) has been a source of considerable controversy. The mandate requires employers with more than fifty full-time equivalent employees to provide healthcare coverage to all employees working more than thirty hours per week or to face a fine of at least $2000. It is predicted by some to create a large incentive for businesses to shift towards more part-time employment to avoid these fines. Because small to medium sized firms prior to the ACA were less likely to offer health insurance and tended to have offered less generous coverage, it is thought that the ACA would more likely impact these employers most. Employees from these firms form the group most likely treated by the ACA. In contrast, since most large firms self-insure and offered qualified insurance packaged even prior to the ACA, these firms are thought to not be directly impacted by ACA requirements and hence provide a comparison sample. Using these two in a difference-in-differnce model and data from the March Current Population Survey from 2005 and 2013, I find no change in part-time employment as a result of the passage of the ACA at an aggregate level, and find few meaningful changes within any demographic groups.

The daily commute to work and its related social histories have long been of interest to historical geographers and urban historians. This article revisits the existing scholarship on the nineteenth-century journey to work and outlines a new methodological framework that uses a historical GIS to overcome many of the challenges identified in previous studies. These challenges include a reliance on small, atypical samples of workers, approximations of the spatial relationship between home and work, and unrealistic interpretations of journeys travelled by employing only Euclidean paths. Combining city directories and decennial censuses through the use of probabilistic record linkage techniques uncovers the relationship between work and home for over 5,000 workers in London, Ontario in 1881. A GIS network-derived journey to work model recreates more realistic journeys that considers the many natural and built environment barriers that influenced the paths and distances workers travelled on a daily basis. Empirical results of the journey to work along lines of occupational class, coincident home-work location, and gender are presented and contextualized to studies in other cities. The results highlight that experiences of commuting differ widely along lines of social class and gender.

Access control mechanisms protect sensitive information from unauthorized users. However, when sensitive information is shared and a Privacy Protection Mechanism (PPM) is not in place, an authorized user can still compromise the privacy of a person leading to identity disclosure. A PPM can use suppression and generalization of relational data to anonymize and satisfy privacy requirements, e.g., k-anonymity and l-diversity, against identity and attribute disclosure. However, privacy is achieved at the cost of precision of authorized information. In this paper, we propose an accuracy-constrained privacy-preserving access control framework. The access control policies define selection predicates available to roles while the privacy requirement is to satisfy the k-anonymity or l-diversity. An additional constraint that needs to be satisfied by the PPM is the imprecision bound for each selection predicate. The techniques for workload-aware anonymization for selection predicates have been discussed in the literature. However, to the best of our knowledge, the problem of satisfying the accuracy constraints for multiple roles has not been studied before. In our formulation of the aforementioned problem, we propose heuristics for anonymization algorithms and show empirically that the proposed approach satisfies imprecision bounds for more permissions and has lower total imprecision than the current state of the art.

In the last few months, there has been no shortage of public concern over the opportunities for America’s millennial generation of young adults—be it their prospects for school, job, house, or life partner in the aftermath of the Great Recession. Such attention is certainly well merited. The Great Recession was felt acutely across the American population but perhaps more so for our youths: while the unemployment rate for those over 34 peaked at about 8 percent, the unemployment rate among those between the ages of 18 and 34 peaked at 14 percent in 2010 and remains elevated, despite substantial improvement; delinquency rates on student loans have risen several percentage points since the Great Recession and even into the recovery; and the homeownership rate among young adults has dropped from a peak of 43 percent in 2005 to 37 percent in 2013 concurrent with a large increase in the share living with their parents. As often occurs when precipitous changes appear to mark a generation, there has been much speculation regarding the economic forces driving the differences between millennials and those in my generation or my parents’ generation. Are good jobs harder to find for today’s young adults? Will growing student loan debt hold back millennials’ homeownership opportunities? Will they ever purchase homes or are do we have on our hands a “Lost Generation” consigned to a lifetime of renting, living in small condos, or even worse for all concerned—spending the coming decades living with their parents? To be sure, these questions do not admit any straightforward answers, and it may take years before we are able to fully disentangle the interplay between the housing and labor markets in a satisfying way. But today I would like to look at millennials more closely and bring to bear some of the existing economic data and research on the issue in an attempt to better understand the trends in millennials’ behavior, with particular attention to its implications for the housing sector. These data imply that it may be premature to suggest that trends among today’s youth are a reflection of a profound change in their preferences or attitudes in the aftermath of the Great Recession when many of these trends were on the horizon long before the recession began and they have been compounded by the large but likely temporary effects of the recession itself. However, regardless of the cause of the recent developments, the ultimate outcomes for this generation will also depend on our policy choices.

This article tests two hypotheses about the labour force participation of women in Hamilton in 1911: first, that single women took paid jobs to compensate for lack of jobs or low earnings among male kin; second, that the need for labour in their households discouraged single women from entering the labour force. These hypotheses are tested by using the entire population of Hamilton, as recorded in the 1911 census. Neither hypothesis receives strong confirmation. The tentative conclusion is that non-material motives were likely to be highly significant in the movement of women into paid labour in this period. This article uses only a small fraction of the sources available on the subject of women and work in Canada, and new empirical riches offer unprecedented opportunities for historians interested in women and work.

This paper provides new evidence on the effect of homeownership on unemployment spells by disaggregating exit from unemployment into full-time and part-time employment using the March Current Population Survey (CPS) data from 1990 to 2013. Using duration models, I find that when transition from unemployment to different types of employment is ignored, homeownership decreases the exit rate from unemployment. However, when the transition to different types of employment is considered, homeowners have lower rates of exit into full-time employment than renters but have higher rates of exit into part-time employment. Competing risk model that simultaneously modeled the transition into full-time and part-time employments also have similar estimates. These results are robust to different specifications and have policy implications.

Existing studies of trust formation in U.S. metropolitan areas have found that trust is lower when there is more income inequality and greater racial fragmentation. I add to this literature by examining the role of income inequality between racial groups (racial income inequality). I find that greater racial income inequality reduces trust. Also, racial fragmentation is no longer a significant determinant of trust once racial income inequality is accounted for. This result is consistent with a simple conceptual framework where concurrent differences in race and income are especially detrimental for trust formation. I find empirical support for further implications deriving from this assumption. In particular, I show that racial income inequality has a more detrimental effect in more racially fragmented communities and that trust falls more in minority groups than in the majority group when racial income inequality increases.

No therapies are known to substantially alter the course of dementia and associated treatment costs. However, enhanced support services for caregivers for people with dementia have been shown to improve caregivers' capabilities and well-being and delay patients' institutionalization. Using a model that simulated disease progression, place of residence, and costs of care, we estimated the economic impact to Minnesota from offering the New York University Caregiver Intervention (NYUCI), an enhanced support services program for adult caregivers of community-dwelling people with dementia. We estimated the impact of the NYUCI on: 1. the potential healthcare savings to all eligible people in the state, assuming all current and future caregivers participate in the NYUCI from 2010 to 2025; 2. the net healthcare cost savings, inclusive of program costs, to eligible caregivers, assuming three less-than-complete levels of participation in the NYUCI from 2010 to 2025 (5% of all caregivers, 10% and 30%); 3. the potential indirect cost savings to all eligible people in the state, assuming all current and future caregivers participate in the NYUCI from 2010 to 2025. Results indicate that approximately 5 percent more people with dementia would remain in the community from year 3 (2013) on, and that 19.3 percent fewer people with dementia would die in institutions over fifteen years. During those years, Minnesota could potentially save as much as $1.24 billion ($996 million in discounted dollars) in direct healthcare costs. The estimated savings in net healthcare costs during those years, including all program costs except for program marketing, were $61.8 million, $103.7 million, and $250.6 million, assuming 5, 10, and 30% of caregivers participate in the NYUCI, respectively. Estimated potential indirect cost savings are also substantial, well exceeding the estimated direct healthcare cost savings. These findings suggest that broader access to enhanced caregiver supports is a promising way to moderate the growing economic burden of dementia. Substantial long-term savings are possible even without a breakthrough in the pharmacologic treatment of the disease. These direct healthcare cost savings would benefit taxpayers (through reduced expenditures for the Medicaid program) and people with dementia and their families, who largely pay the medical and facility fees for those in residential care settings. Other payers who would benefit include the Medicare program, commercial health plans and long term care insurers, to the extent that they fund these formal care services. The substantial indirect cost savings with enhanced support services would benefit caregivers and likely their employers through improved quality of life and increased productivity. Enhanced support services programs for dementia caregivers, such as the NYUCI, are cost-effective ways to manage dementia while researchers continue to seek effective treatments for the disease.

Compared to Hispanic and Asian immigrants, black immigrants in the United States have been considerably less researched, and until very recently, black African immigrants remained a relatively understudied group. Using data from three waves of the US Census (1980, 1990, and 2000), we assess differences in earnings (and related measures of socioeconomic status) among male and female African Americans and black immigrants from Africa and the Caribbean. Results of the analysis suggest a sizeable earnings advantage for immigrants. Controlling for a host of human capital variables, however, reduced the gap between the earnings of African immigrants and native-born blacks, although the difference still remained statistically significant. No such attenuation was found for immigrants from the Caribbean. The results also indicate that for females only, the immigrant advantage has grown over time. Moreover, the findings show that additional years of work experience in the USA or in foreign countries correspond to a rather sizable increase in hourly earnings for both males and females, but, for males, this effect has grown weaker over time. Finally, men earned more than women, both overall and within comparison groups with the gap remaining relatively stable over time.

This research focuses on the relationship between marriage and womens self-employment earnings in the US. The basic proposition is that marriage poses an additional constraint on women entrepreneurs. By acknowledging the overlap of gender, family, and business we are able to observe the relationship between the institution of marriage and womens self-employment earnings. This research used the Integrated Public Use Microdata Systems 2009 American Community Survey. Marriage and children had a negative association with womens self-employment earnings.

This chapter begins by documenting that temporary migrations are not only very common, but that outmigration of immigrants is selective both in terms of migrants' individual characteristics and their economic outcomes. We then examine the problems that arise when estimating immigrants' earnings profiles when outmigration is selective, and discuss the identifying assumptions needed to answer three different questions on immigrants' earnings careers. We show how better data can help to relax these assumptions, suggest appropriate estimators, and provide an illustration using simulated data. We finally provide an overview of existing papers that use different types of data to address selective outmigration when estimating immigrants' earning profiles.

Objectives/Hypothesis Quantify the relationships between dizziness, falls, and obesity among adults. Study Design Cross-sectional analysis of a national health survey. Methods Adult respondents in the 2008 National Health Interview Survey balance module were analyzed. With demographic information, data for balance and dizziness problems, reported falls, injuries from falls, and body mass index were extracted. Associations between balance/dizziness problems and falls or injuries from falls were determined. The additional association between obesity and falls or fall-related injuries in the setting of a balance/dizziness problem was determined. Results Among 216.83.5 million adult Americans, 24.20.7 million reported dizziness in the past 12 months (11.1%0.3%; mean age, 45.90.2 years; 51.7%0.5% female), 11.5%0.3% had fallen in the prior 12 months, and 26.3%0.4% were obese. Among individuals reporting dizziness, 34.3%1.3% reported falls, whereas only 9.1%0.3% of nondizzy individuals reported a fall (odds ratio [OR]: 5.1; P<.001). Among dizzy individuals who reported a fall, 45.8%2.1% were injured by the fall versus 35.6%1.4% nondizzy individuals who fell (OR: 1.5; P<.001). The addition of obesity to dizziness increased the odds of falling by 1.3 (95% confidence interval: 1.2-1.5; P<.001) but did not significantly increase the odds of fall-related injury (P=.110). Conclusions Dizziness/balance problems are strongly associated with both an increased tendency to fall and increased injury rate from falls among adults. The addition of obesity to dizziness was associated with a higher rate of falling but was not associated with a significantly higher rate of fall-related injury. Balance problems in conjunction with obesity need to be targeted in fall-prevention efforts.

We estimate the long-run impact of cash transfers to poor families on children's longevity, educational attainment, nutritional status, and income in adulthood. To do so, we collected individual-level administrative records of applicants to the Mothers' Pension program--the first government-sponsored welfare program in the US (1911-1935) -- and matched them to census, WWII and death records. Male children of accepted applicants lived one year longer than those of rejected mothers. Male children of accepted mothers received one-third more years of schooling, were less likely to be underweight, and had higher income in adulthood than children of rejected mothers.

In this paper, we study a new skyline operator, namely, mutual skyline query (MSQ), which retrieves all the data objects that are contained in the dynamic skyline and meanwhile the reverse skyline of a specified query object q. MSQ has many applications such as marketing analysis, task allocation, and personalized matching. Motivated by this, we first formalize MSQ in both monochromatic and bichromatic cases, and then propose several algorithms for processing MSQ. Our methods utilize a conventional data-partitioning index on the dataset, employ the advantage of reusing technique, and exploit effective pruning heuristics to improve the query processing. Extensive experiments using both real and synthetic datasets demonstrate the effectiveness and efficiency of our proposed algorithms under various experimental settings.

The analysis of a new dataset on state prisoners in the 1900 to 1930 censuses reveals that immigrants rapidly assimilated to native incarceration patterns. One feature of these data is that the second generation can be identified, allowing direct analysis of this group and allowing their exclusion from calculations of comparison rates for the “native” population. Although adult new arrivals were less likely than natives to be incarcerated, this likelihood was increasing with their years in the USA. The foreign born who arrived as children and second-generation immigrants had slightly higher rates of incarceration than natives of native parentage, but these differences disappear after controlling for nativity differences in urbanicity and occupational status. Finally, while the incarceration rates of new arrivals differ significantly by source country, patterns of assimilation are very similar.