The United States has become increasingly characterized by stark class divides in family structure. Poor women are less likely to marry than their more affluent counterparts, but far more likely to have a birth outside of marriage. Recent theoretical and qualitative work at the intersection of demography and cultural sociology suggests that these patterns are generated because poor women have high, nearly unattainable, economic standards for marriage, but make a much weaker connection between economic standing and fertility decisions. We use the events of the Great Recession, leveraging variation in the severity of the crisis between years and across states, to examine how exposure to worse state-level economic conditions is related to poor women's likelihood of marriage and of having a non-marital birth between 2008 and 2012. In accord with theory, we find that women of low socio-economic status (SES) exposed to worse economic conditions are indeed somewhat less likely to marry. However, counter to theoretical expectations, we do not find evidence that economic standing is disconnected from non-marital fertility. Unmarried low-SES women exposed to worse economic conditions significantly reduce their fertility. Further, the relationship between recessionary conditions and non-marital fertility is of a similar magnitude to the relationship between marriage and economic conditions among low-SES women and the negative relationship between economic conditions and non-marital fertility among low-SES women is larger than the negative association between recessionary economic conditions and fertility among more advantaged women.

Industry wage differentials may result either from the structure of the industry (demand type) or human capital (supply type) characteristics of the employed labour force. This study uses two major data sets from Germany and the US that allow the investigation of the effects of these demand and supply type factors on average earnings across industries. The main contribution of the paper shows that aggregate demand relevant to the particular industry has a strong positive effect on the industry's average earnings in addition to the previously established results regarding the significance of the effects of worker and firm characteristics. Consequently, labour market policies, which address solely the characteristics of the workforce and their human capital without due consideration of the macroeconomic environment and the structure of the industry, should be expected to produce the disappointing results of an increasing share of low pay employment in the wage distribution.

The magnitude and spatial variability of acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI) cases attributable to microbial contamination of US community drinking water systems are not well characterized. We compared three approaches (drinking water attributable risk, quantitative microbial risk assessment, and population intervention model) to estimate the annual number of emergency department visits for AGI attributable to microorganisms in North Carolina (NC) community water systems. All three methods used 20072013 water monitoring and emergency department data obtained from state agencies. The drinking water attributable risk method, which was the basis for previous US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) national risk assessments, estimated that 7.9% of annual emergency department visits for AGI are attributable to microbial contamination of community water systems. However, the other methods estimates were more than two orders of magnitude lower, each attributing 0.047% of annual emergency department visits for AGI to community water system contamination. The differences in results between the drinking water attributable risk method, which has been the main basis for previous national risk estimates, and the other two approaches highlights the need to improve methods for estimating endemic waterborne disease risks, in order to prioritize investments to improve community drinking water systems.

This paper investigates some of the causal factors which increased the incidence of slave insurrections and conspiracies in the antebellum Southern United States. The analysis relies on a novel dataset, which is an amalgam of geographic data, occupational data from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS), county-level census data and a compilation of incidents of slave unrest as recorded by Aptheker (1993). I find that slave insurrections and conspiracies were more likely in areas which, due to natural geographic factors, enjoyed a greater degree of productivity in cotton production, and were less likely in areas naturally endowed with a greater degree of productivity in tobacco. I also find that conspiracies were more likely in counties geographically situated closer to Southern cities. To interpret these results, I develop a theoretical model of slave insurrection which incorporates slaves incentives to rebel, as well as slaveowners incentives to surveil. I find that if the strenuousness of the work regime is severe, as was the case on cotton plantations, and if the costs borne by slaves in the wake of a rebellion decrease, as was the case in urban areas, then revolt is more likely and slaveowners are more likely to devote greater resources toward stymieing such outbreaks.

Objectives. We investigated how racial/ethnic shifts in the urban landscape influence race-specific violence by considering changes in the size of the Hispanic population, racial/ethnic contact, and racial segregation patterns. Methods. We used a time-series approach incorporating 4 decennial periods (1980, 1990, 2000, and 2010) to determine whether racial/ethnic demographic changes in 144 US cities influenced White and Black homicide rates. Sources included census and Uniform Crime Reports Supplemental Homicide Report data. Results. The growing diversity in the residential population of US cities contributed to the dramatic decline in homicide rates over time, but the effects differed by racial group. Exposure between Hispanics and Blacks and the growing presence of Hispanics led to a reduced Black homicide trend but had no impact on Whites, after adjustment for economic shifts and other important structural features in US cities. Conclusions. Our research highlights the importance of paying closer attention to exposure and integration between immigrants and existing racial groups. Failure to consider racial/ethnic contact and the racial nature of urban violence may produce misleading results in studies of associations between Hispanic immigration and crime.

Socialization is the lifelong process of learning beliefs, norms, and values socially expected by members of a society or a particular social group. Socialization encourages individuals to learn their culture and naturally reproduce it. Socialization may be altered when an individual enters a different society. This study used a phenomenological approach to understand experiences and adapted or preserved cultural traits of Kenyans in America. Socialization aspects and agents change when Kenyans move to America. Kenyans experienced difficult transitions with food, diet, time, community, language, leisure, work schedules, financial duties, stereotyping, and racism while living in America. The most significant difficulties occur within the first year and then aspects of American culture are slowly adopted. Independent religious values, time, clothing style, individuality, heavy work schedules, and English language capabilities become second nature to Kenyans living in America for more than a year, whereas diet, timing of meals, and experienced stereotyping and racism appeared unlikely transitions even after living in America for a year or more. With increased African immigration to the USA, a larger population of Kenyans will likely experience similar cultural experiences; as a result, potential adverse health effects may result from maladaptive adaptation. This research provides evidence of an increased need for diversity recognition and community outreach and awareness throughout America.

The United States has become increasingly characterized by stark class divides in family structure. Poor women are less likely to marry than their more affluent counterparts but are far more likely to have a birth outside of marriage. Recent theoretical and qualitative work at the intersection of demography and cultural sociology suggests that these patterns are generated because poor women have high, nearly unattainable, economic standards for marriage but make a much weaker connection between economic standing and fertility decisions. We use the events of the Great Recession, leveraging variation in the severity of the crisis between years and across states, to examine how exposure to worse state-level economic conditions is related to poor womens likelihood of marriage and of having a nonmarital birth between 2008 and 2012. In accord with theory, we find that women of low socioeconomic status(SES) exposed to worse economic conditions are indeed somewhat less likely to marry. However, we also find that unmarried low-SES women exposed to worse economic conditions significantly reduce their fertility; economic standing is not disconnected from nonmarital fertility. Our results suggest that economic concerns were connected to fertility decisions for low-SES unmarried women during the Great Recession.

This article examines wage disparities among U.S. workers between 1980 and 2010. The author analyzes wage differences by sex, place of origin, and type of job. In general, wage differences between men and women and the native-born and immigrants persist over time and increase in both cases. There is a greater concentration of earnings among men than among women. Wage inequality increased in 2010 with the economic crisis, above all in certain groups: nonHispanic white native-born workers concentrate more income, whereas inequality is less among jobs requiring higher qualifications

Using the 3-year sample of the American Community Survey (ACS) for 2009 to 2011, we compute public school teacher salaries for comparison across U.S. states. Teacher salaries are adjusted for state differences in teacher characteristics, cost of living, household amenity attractiveness and federal tax rates. Salaries of non-teaching college graduates, defined as those with occupations outside of education, are used to adjust for state household amenity attractiveness. We then find that state differences in federal tax-adjusted teacher salaries relative those of other college graduates significantly affect the share of education majors that are employed as teachers at the time of the survey. 1

In this paper, we analyse the effect of emigration from Poland on Polish wages. Focusing on the 1998–2007 period for Poland, we use a unique dataset that contains information about household members who are currently living abroad, which allows us to develop region‐specific emigration rates and to estimate the effect of emigration on wages using within‐region variation. Our findings show that emigration led to a slight increase in wages for high‐ and medium‐skilled workers, which are the two groups with the largest relative outmigration rates. Workers at the low end of the skill distribution might have experienced wage decreases.

This paper updates the major study by Macpherson and Hirsch (1995) of the effect of the gender composition of occupations on female (and male) earnings. Using large representative national samples of employees from the Current Population Survey, crosssectional estimates of the impact of proportion female in an occupation (or feminization) on wages are first provided, paying close attention to the role of occupational characteristics. Specification differences in the effects of feminization across alternative subsamples are examined as well as the contribution of the feminization argument to the explanation of the gender wage gap. An updated longitudinal analysis using the CPS data is also provided. This examination of two-year panels of individuals is supplemented using information from the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth which has the advantage of offering a longer panel. Analysis of the former suggests the reduction in gender composition effects observed for females in cross section with the addition of controls for occupational characteristics becomes complete after accounting for unobserved individual heterogeneity. This is not the case for the latter dataset, most likely reflecting heritage effects of discrimination in what is an aging cohort.

We report on patterns of abundance, recruitment, and predation on the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) in three human-dominated estuaries in the northeastern United States. Through replicate field experiments and observational studies at multiple sites nested within each of the three estuaries, we investigated the relative influences of local and regional scale variation in select bottom-up and top-down factors on blue mussel populations on wave-protected rocky shores. The most striking result was the decoupling between adult abundance and recruitment: mussel recruitment rates were highest in the most northern estuary, Casco Bay, while adult abundances were highest in the most southern estuary, Long Island Sound. We detected evidence of top-down forcing on adult abundance by consumers in the two more southern estuaries, Narragansett Bay and Long Island Sound, but not in Casco Bay. Finally, we observed some indications of bottom-up forcing on mussel abundance and recruitment at the within-estuary scale, but these signals were not consistent among estuaries or across the responses measured (e.g., adult abundances and recruitment rates). Our results support previous work demonstrating the importance of both top-down and bottom-up influences on rocky shore populations, and also highlight how future researchparticularly integrating studies of the different ontogenetic stages of musselscould further advance understanding of biological population dynamics in this and other systems.

A large gap in incarceration rates between black and white men has been evident since the early 20th century. This paper examines the effect of access to primary schooling on black incarceration in this period. I use the construction of 5,000 schools in the US South, funded by philanthropist Julius Rosenwald, as a quasi-natural experiment that increased the educational attainment of southern black students. I link individuals across Census waves in order to assign exposure to a Rosenwald school during childhood and to measure adult incarceration. I find that one year of access to a Rosenwald school decreased the probability of being a prisoner by 0.1 percentage points (seven percent of the mean). Using other data from archival and government sources, I find that Rosenwald schools affected juvenile crime and all categories of adult crime. I argue that most of the reduction in incarceration comes from increased opportunity costs of crime through higher educational attainment but also investigate school quality and migration responses. Effects are largest in counties which have less racist attitudes and which have a more literate population. These results contribute to a broader literature on racial gaps in social outcomes in the US throughout the 20th century.

Even though syphilis can be prevented effectively and treated inexpensively, it has remained a global public health problem. Untreated congenital syphilis results in neonatal death, stillbirth, preterm birth, or congenital deformities. Many developing countries have recently instituted syphilis prevention programs in antenatal care, but there has not been a systematic study of the effects of such programs. This paper is the first to study antenatal testing laws initiated in the U.S. in 1938-1947 which mandated physicians and other persons permitted by law to attend to a pregnant woman to test her for syphilis. We use the variation in the timing of state antenatal testing laws to estimate the laws effect on neonatal mortality rates and deaths due to preterm birth. Using 1931-1947 Vital Statistics data, we find that these laws decreased neonatal mortality rates of nonwhites by 3.15 per 1,000 live births (a 8.6% reduction) while having no discernible impact on whites. The laws contributed to an 18% narrowing of the white-nonwhite neonatal mortality gap by 1947. Using 1950 U.S. Census data, we find that mandatory antenatal testing led to a 7% increase in the cohort size of nonwhite poor, which is consistent with the neonatal mortality results. We find universal antenatal testing to be very cost-effective, with an estimated $7,600 cost (in 2013 dollars) per life-year saved.

An Introduction to Ministry is a comprehensive and ecumenical introduction to the craft of ministry for ministers, pastors, and priests that make up the mainline denominations in the United States. Ecumenically-focused, It offers a grounded account of ministry, covering 12areas such as vocation, congregational leadership, and cultivation of skills for an effective ministry. Covers the key components of the M.Div. curriculum, offering a map and guide to the central skills and issues in training Explores the areas of vocation, skills for ministry, and issues around congregational leadership Each topic ends with an annotated bibliography providing an indispensable gateway to further study Helps students understand both the distinctive approach of their denomination and the relationship of that approach to other mainline denominations Advocates and defends a generous understanding of the Christian tradition in its openness and commitment to broad conversation

aintaining privacy in network data publishing is a major challenge. This is because known characteristics of individuals can be used to extract new information about them. Recently, researchers have developed privacy methods based on k-anonymity and l-diversity to prevent re-identification or sensitive label disclosure through certain structural information. However, most of these studies have considered only structural information and have been developed for undirected networks. Furthermore, most existing approaches rely on generalization and node clustering so may entail significant information loss as all properties of all members of each group are generalized to the same value. In this paper, we introduce a framework for protecting sensitive attribute, degree (the number of connected entities), and relationships, as well as the presence of individuals in directed social network data whose nodes contain attributes. First, we define a privacy model that specifies privacy requirements for the above private information. Then, we introduce the technique of Ambiguity in Social Network data (ASN) based on anatomy, which specifies how to publish social network data. To employ ASN, individuals are partitioned into groups. Then, ASN publishes exact values of properties of individuals of each group with common group ID in several tables. The lossy join of those tables based on group ID injects uncertainty to reconstruct the original network. We also show how to measure different privacy requirements in ASN. Simulation results on real and synthetic datasets demonstrate that our framework, which protects from four types of private information disclosure, preserves data utility in tabular, topological and spectrum aspects of networks at a satisfactory level.

In this Appendix, section B.1 discusses the external validity of our results. Section B.2 describes the types of insurance plans represented in our MarketScan sample, and section B.3 presents details on relative public and private prices in the cross-section. Section B.4 describes the construction of some control variables, and then section B.5 goes into further detail on our construction of HHI measures. Finally, section B.6 introduces an additional data source, the Community Tracking Study (CTS). CTS data allow us to examine directly welfare-relevant outcomes involving physicians’ behavior and choice of specialty.

Many signs point to the contemporary period as a color-blind era, one in which Whites purport to be unaware of race in social or political life. At the same time, White ethnic and racial identity continues to be measured in official government statistics such as the decennial U.S. Census and the annual American Community Survey (ACS). To adjudicate between the two, the ACS ancestry question response can be used not just as a means to measure the actual size of national origin populations but can also be a way to understand what it means to be White in an era of color blindness and optional ethnicity. White identities can provide the mechanisms by which color-blind ideologies are understood and expressed. Whites whose primary identity is American will understand race in a different way than a White respondent who identifies with a European ethnicityyet each identity can lead to the same color-blind beliefs. To assess the appeal of different varieties of White identity, the responses of 16,632 non-Hispanic Whites to the ancestry question on the 2011 ACS are used. Based on these data, one can discern four primary types of White identity prevalent in the United States today: White (6%), American (10%), ethnic (62%), and none (12%). Each identity is most appealing to a different segment of the populationfor example, older, urban Whites are most likely to claim an ethnic identity, while younger Whites living in rural areas with larger Hispanic populations are most likely to claim simply that their ethnic ancestry is White. Each identity also suggests a different pathway to color blindness.

Using a boundary perspective (Alba and Nee 2003), I examine the marital behavior of three self-identified multiracial groups: black/whites, American Indian/whites, Asian/whites. With a focus on marriage with whites, I assess whether the boundaries of whiteness are expanding to include these part-white multiracial groups. Marrying whites at a large scale may signify that part-white multiracial Americans are in the process of being accepted as white. At the same time, due to differences in the racial identity experiences of multiracial groups, marital patterns may differ by racial combination. Based on analysis of 20082012 American Community Survey data, I find that the majority of all three groups are married to whites, suggesting that most members in these groups are on the path to whiteness. On the other hand, multinomial logistic regression analysis demonstrates that American Indian/whites and Asian/whites are more likely than black/whites to have a white spouse, relative to spouses of another race/ethnicity. Moreover, separate regression analyses by multiracial group reveal gender differences in their likelihood of marrying whites for black/whites and Asian/whites. These results indicate racial stratification in the marriage market among part-white multiracial Americans, with further stratification by gender for some groups.

On-line Analytical Processing (OLAP) represents a good applications package to explore and navigate into data cubes. Though, it is limited to exploratory tasks. It does not assist the decision maker in performing information investigation. Thus, various studies have been trying to extend OLAP to new capabilities by coupling it with data mining algorithms. Our current proposal stands within this trend. It has two major contributions. First, a Multi-perspectives Cube Exploration Framework (MCEF) is introduced. It is a generalized framework designed to assist the application of classical data mining algorithm on OLAP cubes. Second, a Neural Approach for Prediction over High-dimensional Cubes (NAP-HC) is also introduced, which extends Modular Neural Networks (MNN)s architecture to multidimensional context of OLAP cubes, to predict non-existent measures. A preprocessing stage is embedded in NAP-HC . . .