Between 1880 and 1910, fertility among African-American women dropped more precipitously than among white women, although black women's sociodemographic profile generally would not have predicted that trend. According to one perspective, regional differences in the timing of voluntary fertility control accounted for discrepancies by race. According to another, poor southern maternal health disproportionately affected African-American women's fecundity, reducing their fertility. Tests based on the 1910 ipums and the 1916 U.S. Plantation Census show that, during the first three years of marriage, African-American women's probabilities of having at least one birth, compared to white women's probabilities, declined as marital durations increased. However, the probability of having at least one birth was lower for African-American and white tenant-farm women whose counties had more plantation agriculture. Findings support the influence of health-related factors, possibly linked to plantation agricultural development, on the supply of children.

This article examines the aspiration-attainment gap and educational resilience among children of Mexican immigrants in the midst of the post-1965 U.S. demographic transformation. Two widespread theoretical explanations are used to understand the educational disparities faced by this subpopulation: the cultural argument, which emphasizes their family process and value orientation, and the structural model, which stresses the roles of the familys socioeconomic status and structural assimilation in mainstream society. Overall, both theoretical orientations were partially supported. Protective determinants and risk factors that foster or impede educational attainment are enumerated. Relevant practice implications are also discussed.

Consideration of privacy is necessary when sharing an information database about an individual with other companies. l-In general anonymization technology such as diversity, an identifier that identifies an individual is excluded from the database, and the pseudo identifier (QID) is generalized to allow an attacker to estimate the attribute value of each individual. prevent. Anonymization is usually performed only once, and an anonymized database can be shared by multiple data users. Therefore, there is a possibility that a QID that a certain data user wants to analyze is completely generalized and cannot be analyzed at all. In this study, l-diversity is realized by adding dummy elements to sensitive attributes without generalizing QID. Therefore, each data user can freely analyze based on their favorite QID. Simulations using real data show that the proposed method has a higher trade-off between privacy and effectiveness than existing l-diversity methods. Existing anonymization techniques remove identifiers and generalize quasi-identifiers (QIDs) from the database.By doing so, adversaries cannot specify each individual's values ​​of the sensitive attributes. Because the database is anonymized based on one-size-fits-all measures in usual, it is possible that QIDs that a data user primarily on are all generalized, and the anonymized database has no value for the user.In this study, we proposed a new technique for l-diversity, which keeps QIDs unchanged so that data users can analyze it based on QIDs they focus on.Through simulations of real data sets,we prove that our proposed method can result in a better tradeoff between privacy and utility of the anonymized database.

The relative income hypothesis theorizes an individual’s income, relative to the income of their peers, adversely affects their health. There is empirical evidence to support the relative income hypothesis, showing a negative statistical relationship between income inequality and health. The literature is unsettled on the relevant level of geography to measure income inequality, as well as other control variables in the estimation. This paper contributes to this literature by asking how state level income inequality affects the probability of an individual having excellent self-reported health. The relative income hypothesis is tested using individual level data from the Current Population Survey in the United States, and is supplemented with state level income inequality and healthcare spending data from 1996-2009. A logit model with clustered standard errors is employed, with marginal effects reported. Results suggest no statistically significant effects within the full sample. However, if the analysis is restricted to the five most or least equal states, there is a statistically significant relationship between income inequality and health. The most equal states exhibit a positive (but small) relationship between inequality and health, while the least equal exhibit a negative (but small) relationship. While a statistically significant association is found for these samples, the point estimates are not economically significant. The results are robust to the specific income inequality measure, lag structure of income inequality, and time period of analysis. The results do not support the relative income hypothesis. The implication is the effect of income inequality on health may be overstated

This paper reviews vaccination levels, trends, and targets, incidence rates, relevant health insurance coverage policies, and the cost effectiveness literature and other reports that have evaluated vaccine utilization in this population. We then identify factors that are shown to be related to vaccine utilization in a nationally representative survey of health status and behaviors that has been conducted since 2000. This analysis identifies obstacles that reduce the likelihood that older adults will use different vaccines and measures the extent to which financial, information, health barriers and demographic factors contribute to underutilization of vaccines.

One of the longest running questions that has been regularly included in US national public opinion polls is Are you in favor of the death penalty for persons convicted of murder?. Because the death penalty is governed by state laws rather than federal laws, it is of special interest to know how public opinion varies by state, and how it has changed over time within each state.We combine dozens of national polls taken over a 50-year span and fit a Bayesian multilevel logistic regression model to estimate support for the death penalty as a function of the year, the state, state level variables and various individual level demographic variables. Among our findings were that support levels in northeastern and southern states have moved in opposite directions over the past 50 years, support among blacks has decreased relative to non-blacks, but at slightly different rates for men and women, and support among some education groups varies widely by region. Throughout the paper, we highlight the use of a variety of analytical and graphical tools for model understanding, including average predictive comparisons, finite population contrasts for overparameterized models and graphical summaries of posterior distributions of group level variance parameters.

Public ratings of occupations in the 1960s and again in 1989 provided useful information on hun- dreds of occupations. The ratings and socioeconomic scales based on them have been very useful for the study of social stratification and mobility. The transformation of manufacturing and the emergence of new occupations in the life sciences, information technology, and financial services threaten to make the old ratings and scales obsolete. New codes from the U.S. Census Bureau include 285 occupations that have never been rated by the publi. In 2012, we undertook, as part of the General Social Survey, a partial replication and comprehensive update of the public rating task. The results show a degree of stability consistent with Treimans (1977) findings regarding public agreement about social standing over time and place. Respondents in 2012 tended to rate new occupations much as previous samples did. People rated new occupations much as the cre- dentials and pay associated with them would predict. Many of the new occupations employ college graduates; the average social standing among new occupations is correspondingly higher than that of occupational titles that were rated in the past. Both credentials and pay continue to predict the popular rankings. The relative weight of these predictors has changed since 1989; income is more important than it was in 1989.

This paper studies how the transition from self-employment to employee-jobs over the long run of development can explain growth in income tax capacity. I construct a new database which covers 90 household surveys across countries at different income levels and 140 years of historical data within the US (1870-2010). Using these data, I first establish three new stylized facts: 1) within country, the share of employees increases over the income distribution, and increases at all levels of income as a country develops; 2) the income tax exemption threshold moves down the income distribution as a country develops tracking employee growth; 3) the employee share above the income tax threshold remains high and constant at 80-85 percent. These findings are consistent with a model where a high employee share is a necessary condition for taxation and where the rise in income covered by information trails through increases in employee shares drives expansion of the income tax base. To provide a causal estimate of the impact of employee share on the exemption threshold, I study a state-led US development program implemented in the 1950s-60s which shifted up the level of employee share. The identification strategy exploits within-state changes in court-litigation status which generates quasi-experimental variation in the effective implementation date of the program. I find that the exogenous increase in employee share is associated with an expansion of the state income tax base and an increase in state income tax revenue.

The United States shows striking racial and ethnic differences in marriage patterns. Compared to both white and Hispanic women, black women marry later in life, are less likely to marry at all, and have higher rates of marital instability.

I compare the evolution of maternal labor supply and wages in the first six years after kindergarten, between women whose child started kindergarten at five and those who did not. Identification exploits geographical and inter temporal variation in the cutoffs which determine eligibility to enroll. Labor market participation (LFP) is up to 7 percentage points lower among mothers of non-enrolled children and it takes them up to five years to close the LFP gap. Furthermore, they are 10% more likely to have additional children within the first two years. The average wages for mothers of enrolled children are lower in the short-run, but higher in the medium run. Within a search model, this can be explained by a combination of self selection and positive returns to experience. Among teen mothers, kindergarten has a positive impact on school enrollment (+16%).

This paper shows that attracting tradable jobs to a city has a bigger positive impact on employment in the non-tradable sector in the same city when the unemployment rate is higher. Therefore it is efficient to stimulate firms in the tradable sector to locate and/or expand in cities with relatively high unemployment rate. This policy would also reduce disparity between cities. Finally the jobs created in the non-tradable sector due to this local multiplier effect from the tradable sector will employ relatively more current inhabitants in cities with a high unemployment rate, thus making this policy more attractive for local policy makers as well. A simple model illustrates the effect of a demand shock on employment in the non-tradable sector of a city. Empirically I consider the effect of demand from workers in the tradable sector on employment in the non-tradable sector in the same city using U.S. census data from 1980 to 2000. I find that 100 additional jobs in the tradable sector will increase employment in the non-tradable sector in the same city by employing 81 current residents and employing 28 workers that move to the city from other regions. I find that the size of this local employment multiplier depends on the local unemployment rate. Specifically, the multiplier for current residents increases, which drives the overall effect, but the multiplier for migrants decreases.

Trends towards gender equality slowed in the 1990s and advancement for Blacks in the U.S. labor force largely stalled in the 1980s, yet progress towards race and gender equity in management is less well understood. Given the importance of organizational leadership for influencing ascriptive inequality in the workplace, this study offers a systematic analysis of changes in the status of Black men and women and White women in management from 1980 to 2010 using U.S. Decennial Census data from 1980 to 2000 and American Community Survey data from 2006-20011. Because few studies have examined the intersection of race and gender inequality in the workplace across sectors of employment, I examine both relative access to managerial jobs, and relative earnings within them, separately by sector. I find that while Black and White women made significant strides into management, particularly in the public sector, and the gender earnings gap decreased in both sectors in the 1980s and 1990s, progress thereafter has been limited and no real progress was made in the 2000s. However, despite tremendous strides during the 1960s and 1970s, progress towards increased access to management and greater financial compensation within management stalled for Black men in the entire period under study.

This article studies the effects of federal tax changes on U.S.‐state‐level income. Utilizing an exogenous tax shock series recently proposed in the literature, we find considerable variation in how federal tax changes affect regional income: estimated state income multipliers range between –0.2 in Utah and –3.7 in Hawaii. Analyzing the determinants of differences in regional tax multipliers suggests that size and composition of the state tax base help explain the observed heterogeneity in the transmission of federal tax policy.

This case study profiles Verde, an innovative nonprofit organization based in the highly diverse, lowincome Cully neighborhood of Portland, Oregon. Verde’s mission is to pursue environmental wealth through social enterprise, outreach, and advocacy. It fulfills its mission through operating three social enterprises, developing Living Cully, a neighborhood-wide coalition to fight displacement of low-income residents and residents of color due to gentrification, and advocating for preferential hiring and contracting policies for low-income people and people of color, across public and private sectors. Over its history, Verde has created 21 full-time, living wage jobs directly, through the operation of three social enterprises: landscaping, nursery, and energy efficient building. Its landscaping business focuses specifically on habitat restoration and green infrastructure, including the building of parks and restoration of natural areas within the neighborhood. In addition, Verde opens up opportunities for ongoing education and workforce training to the Crew Members who work at its social enterprises. Verde also creates job opportunities indirectly by advocating for preferential hiring and contracting policies for low-income people and people of color throughout Portland, with a focus on the Cully neighborhood. Living Cully represents a holistic approach to placemaking in underserved communities; it calls itself an Ecodistrict focused on social equity, and operates under the slogan, “sustainability as an anti-poverty strategy.” The Cully neighborhood has historically suffered from underinvestment, lack . . .

The 2012 GSS included a popular prestige rating (Smith and Son 2014). A sample of 1,001 individuals, first interviewed in 2008 and included in the GSS panel, rated 90 occupations each; a rotation of occupations among respondents resulted in ratings for 860 occupational titles, most of which could be assigned to one of the 840 codes in the 2010 Standard Occupational Classification (SOC). This methodological report explains how we collected the ratings and converted them into prestige scores and a socioeconomic index for each of the 539 occupational categories of the Census Bureaus coding scheme now used in the GSS.

In this paper, we tackle the problem of constructing a differentially private synopsis for the classification analyses. Several the state-ofthe-art methods follow the structure of existing classification algorithms and are all iterative, which is suboptimal due to the locally optimal choices and the over-divided privacy budget among many sequentially composed steps. Instead, we propose a new approach, PrivPfC, a new differentially private method for releasing data for classification. The key idea is to privately select an optimal partition of the underlying dataset using the given privacy budget in one step. Given one dataset and the privacy budget, PrivPfC constructs a pool of candidate grids where the number of cells of each grid is under a data-aware and privacy-budget-aware threshold. After that, PrivPfC selects an optimal grid via the exponential mechanism by using a novel quality function which minimizes the expected number of misclassified records on which a histogram classifier is constructed using the published grid. Finally, PrivPfC injects noise into each cell of the selected grid and releases the noisy grid as the private synopsis of the data. If the size of the candidate grid pool is larger than the processing capability threshold set by the data curator, we add a step in the beginning of PrivPfC to prune the set of attributes privately. We introduce a modified 2 quality function with low sensitivity and use it to evaluate an attributes relevance to the classification label variable. Through extensive experiments on real datasets, we demonstrate PrivPfCs superiority over the stateof-the-art methods.

We construct datasets of linked census records to study internal migrants selection and destination choices during the first decades of the Great Migration (1910-1930). We study both whites and blacks and intra- and inter-regional migration. While there is some evidence of positive selection, the degree of selection was small and participation in migration was widespread. Differences in background, including initial location, cannot account for racial differences in destination choices. Blacks and whites were similarly responsive to pre-existing migrant stocks from their home state, but black men were more deterred by distance, attracted to manufacturing, and responsive to labor demand.

The stock of human capital in an area is important for regional economic growth and development. However, highly educated workers are often quite mobile, and there is a concern that public investments in college graduates may not benefit the state if the college graduates leave the state after finishing their education. This paper examines the relationship between the production of college graduates from a state and the stock of college graduates residing in the state using microdata from the decennial census and American Community Survey. The relationship is examined across states and across cohorts within states. The descriptive analysis suggests that the relationship between the production and stock of college graduates has increased over time and is nearly proportional in recent years. Instrumental variables methods are used to estimate causal effects. The preferred instrumental variables results yield an average point estimate for the production-stock relationship of 0.52, but the effect likely decreases with age.

On January 12, 2015, Bruce Rauner was sworn into office as the 42nd Governor of Illinois. After nearly a month of traveling the state and laying out his agenda, Governor Rauner delivered his first State of the State address on February 4, 2015. His ambitious policy agenda aims to fix Illinois fiscal crisis mainly through a constitutional amendment on public sector pensions, changes to the states tax code, and adjustments to the states labor laws including banning political contributions from certain labor unions and implementing local right-to-work laws which reduce the power of unions. What is the rationale behind Rauners first-year agenda? Would his proposals, if enacted, accomplish his goal of making Illinois a competitive and compassionate state? Are his policy proposals supported by evidence and fact? This Illinois Economic Policy Institute (ILEPI) Policy Brief investigates Rauners most important proposals and fact-checks the Governors claims. This fact check paraphrases claims that Governor Rauner has made in his first month of office, specifically in Rauners first State of the State address and in a presentation that he has been giving called The Illinois Turnaround. Claims are evaluated and then assigned both a verdict and an explanation. The three verdicts used by ILEPI are: 1.) True 2.) Only Half True, and 3.) False. Accompanying each verdict is one of the following explanations: 1. Incorrect Data which could include bad datasets or sources with discredited or poor methodology; 2. Incomplete Story which could include data provided without context or misleading information; and 3. Ideological Misconception which include politically-motivated claims without factual information.