Ideally, land use policies correct for negative externalities. However, the barriers they impose on individuals and communities have serious implications. Existing studies on this topic focus on singular, specific areas because land regulation is determined at the local level and varies extensively across the nation. Furthermore, current housing literature focuses on the norm of single family housing. This ignores the changing attitudes toward different types of dwellings. My study examines local regulatory environments across the nation by using Gyourko et al. 2008's Wharton Residential Land Use Regulation Index, which develops a comparative scale for the otherwise impossibly varied regulatory environments. I also use micro data from the American Community Survey to see individual housing choices. Then, with a custom-made dataset from these two sources, I use empirical regression analysis to study the effects of land use regulation on peoples housing decisions, specifically the choice between a single-family house and a multi-family apartment complex. My results show that more restrictive regulation makes a person more likely to rent their home as well as occupy a multi-family apartment complex as opposed to a single-family home.

How often are low-income families pushed into poverty by their child care expenses? In this fact sheet, we use the Supplemental Poverty Measure (SPM) to assess the extent to which child care expenses are pushing families with young children into poverty.

Historical studies of single females and mothers are mostly based on heads of household only, because family-level information concerning complex households was unavailable and they were, therefore, rendered statistically invisible. This is still the case with modern surveys like the household income and expenditure survey, as income and resource data are only provided at household level. By categorising headship rates by sex, age and marital status, this paper presents a methodology for estimating – in addition to heads of household– the numbers of single females and mothers among members of complex or multigenerational households. Such situations were frequent in the past and continue to be so in developing countries and among migrants. Young couples may also be in such living arrangements, mostly in times of crises and tight housing markets. The data analysis shows that access to independent dwellings and to household headship is strongly related to income and employment, and the associated selection leads to significant biases in estimates of the socio-economic status of households or families, in favour of mostly better-off families. The poorest households are made up of those who live independently because no other option is open to them. Little option is open to those with little or no resources, either, and thus they live in complex households where their poverty risk cannot be estimated, and where they may have little influence on the education, health and work of themselves and their children.

Despite significant research on “who” entrepreneurs are and from “where” they emerge, scholars have far fewer systematic insights into “what” entrepreneurs actually do. Using data from a new nationally representative survey of Americans, we document the process of entrepreneurship. We develop several new insights into the steps individuals considering entrepreneurship undertake. Fewer than half of those who considered starting a business take even the lowest-cost steps, such as searching the internet for potential competitors or speaking with a friend. Their rationales for quitting the entrepreneurial process include both the arrival of new information about their idea and the inability to complete the next step. Our results provide support for both economic and psychological perspectives on the entrepreneurial process.

This study estimates the causal effect of paid parental leave on gender equality. California and New Jersey are the two first states in the United States to implement a statewide program offering six weeks of compensated parental leave, when having a new-born or adopted child. To estimate the effects of these reforms, I use repeated cross-sectional micro-level Census and ACS data from 2001 and 2015. For each state and outcome, I construct a synthetic control out of the remaining states, and compare it to the treated state in a Difference-in-Differences (DiD) approach. The study investigates the impact on share of hours worked and share of wage earned by the mother in the household, as well as on the labour market outcomes; labour force participation, wage level and average hours worked per week. I find a significant increase in share of hours worked in New Jersey and share of wage earned by the mother in California, which indicates a small positive effect on gender equality. A dynamic analysis validates the robustness of the findings for New Jersey. However, the dynamic analysis reveals that the increase in California is not solely driven by the intervention, as I identify a clear positive pre-trend prior to the intervention in labour force participation among mothers. Any conclusions regarding the general effects of paid parental leave on gender equality in California can hence not be drawn. Further, I find that the effect on gender equality in New Jersey is mostly driven by a change on the extensive margin: More married mothers, especially low-income mothers, participate in the labour force as a consequence of paid parental leave.

Although anti-immigrant sentiment is often attributed to economic competition with foreign-born workers, research has provided contradictory results. This paper combines survey and occupation data to re-examine the relationship between immigration attitudes and labour market competition in Houston, an established immigration gateway. I analyse data from multiple waves of the Houston Area Survey and the American Community Survey, the Bureau of Labor Statistics, and O*NET. Results indicate that labour market competition is associated with preferences for reducing immigration in Houston. Those working in occupations with recent increases in the number of foreign-born workers, that require less education, and that have higher rates of unemployment are more likely to prefer to reduce future legal immigration, even after controlling for perceived economic and cultural threats. These results support other research at the occupation and industry levels and suggest that labour market competition is a factor in shaping immigration attitudes.

Demographic and organizational theories yield mixed evidence as to whether ethnic economies are a benefit or hindrance to the status attainment of residents and entrepreneurs. In this paper, we provide one possible theoretical resolution by separating the positive effects that may emanate among co-ethnic neighbors from the negative effects that may result with the segregation of racial or ethnic groups. We test the theory by analyzing occupational wage attainment and entrepreneurship among African Americans between 1880 and 1940, a historical context in which Jim Crow laws imposed segregation exogenously. Drawing on cross-sectional and panel Census data for representative samples of blacks in the United States, the results suggest a consistent increase in intra- and intergenerational mobility among residents with samerace neighbors, accompanied with downward mobility among residents who are concentrated in larger racialized enclaves. Both patterns are also observed in the distribution of entrepreneurial activity. We conclude with thoughts on the possibility of bringing demographic, organizational, and historical perspectives into closer dialogue in understanding the spatial scale of ethnic economies.

This analysis largely focuses on President Trump’s budget since the budget put forth by congressional leaders includes fewer details, making it impossible to know in many instances exactly how it would harm veterans. But the overall size of the spending cuts that congressional leaders are proposing—coupled with their massive proposed tax cuts— would make it virtually impossible for veterans and their families to escape unscathed. Here are the five ways in which Trump’s and the congressional majority’s budgets deceptively undermine the security of veterans and their families, whether it is their ability to find work, stay healthy, or keep a roof over their heads.

While the last decade has seen a growing academic interest in how states count and classify Indigenous peoples in the national census, most research has been limited to small case studies. In contrast, this study examines key patterns of Indigenous enumeration worldwide spanning the period 1985 to 2014. This comparative perspective is valuable because it theorises practices of ethnic counting and classification as a phenomenon positioned with a broader social context rather than a parochial practice that can only be explained by unique historical or political factors within states. Two key questions illuminate this study: how widespread is Indigenous enumeration in national censuses globally over the focal period (1985 to 2014); and, how have forms of classification of Indigenous peoples in the census changed. To explore these questions I utilise data from a unique time-series database from the Ethnicity Counts? Project which combines information about civic and ethnic questions asked in national censuses, with data on countries’ social, economic and political characteristics. The research findings show the number of states employing some form of Indigenous enumeration in censuses has increased over the focal period. Furthermore strategies of enumeration have shifted, with ethnicity type questions becoming more prevalent over time. Despite the observed increase in Indigenous enumeration over the focal period, the majority of Indigenous peoples are not counted in their national census. Ultimately this study provides new empirical findings regarding patterns of state enumeration of Indigenous populations which highlight the need for improved coverage and quality of data on Indigenous peoples.

The aggregate fertility rate and the agricultural employment share in the U.S. both declined from the late 19th century to the eve of the baby boom. I document two important forces behind this observation: (1) the agricultural sector had a higher fertility rate, so when the share of the agricultural sector declined, the aggregate fertility rate followed; (2) the education reform increased the relative odds that rural youth received an education and moved to the non-farm sector. I build a two-sector overlapping generations model that features endogenous fertility and occupational choice to evaluate the e¤ects of the education reform, the technological progress and child-rearing cost. Through counterfactual analysis, I …nd that the education reform accounts for one fourth of the declines in the fertility rate, and that of the agricultural employment share drop, together with more than half of the skill intensity increase in the model. Shutdown quality-quantity tradeo¤ channel by exogenously …xing the fertility rates would reduce 20% of the structural transformation generated in the model.

Objective: Identify contemporary noise exposures and hearing protection use among adults. Study Design: Cross-sectional analysis of national health survey. Methods: Adult respondents in the 2014 National Health Interview Series hearing survey module were analyzed. Potentially harmful exposures to occupational and recreational noises in the past 12 months were extracted and quantified. Patterns of hearing protection use also were analyzed. Results: Among 239.7 million adults, loud and very loud occupational noise exposures were reported by 5.3% and 21.7%, respectively. Of those exposed to loud or very loud sounds at work, only 18.7% and 43.6%, respectively, always used hearing protection. A total of 38.2% (1.9 million) of those with very loud occupational exposures never used hearing protection. Frequent (> 10/year) loud and very loud recreational noise exposures were reported by 13.9% and 21.1%, respectively, most commonly to lawn mowers (72.6% and 55.2%, respectively). When exposed to recreational loud/very loud noise, only 11.4% always used hearing protection, whereas 62.3% (6.3 million) never used any protection. Lifetime exposure to firearm noise was reported by 36.6% of adults, 11.5% of whom had used firearms in the prior 12 months. Of those, only 58.5% always used hearing protection, whereas 21.4% (7.4 million) never used hearing protection. Conclusion: Substantial noise exposures with potentially serious long-term hearing health consequences frequently are occurring in occupational and recreational settings, and with the use of firearms. Only a minority of those exposed consistently are using hearing protection. Healthcare providers should actively identify and encourage the use of hearing protection with those patients at risk.

The paper focuses on loss (or gain) of earned income among four groups of first and second-generation immigrants (Whites, Hispanics, Blacks, and Asians) in the United States. Data were obtained from the 2013 Annual Social and Economic Supplement of the Current Population Survey (ASEC CPS). Analysis of the male labor force population (age 24-65 years) reveals that in first generation, all four groups are disadvantaged in attainment of income (compared to third-generation and over) native-born whites. The disadvantage is least pronounced among white immigrants and most pronounced among blacks and Hispanic immigrants. Further analysis reveals that income of second-generation whites actually overpasses third generation whites. By contrast, second-generation non-white groups are disadvantaged in attainment of income when compared to third-generation whites. Second-generation non-whites are not disadvantaged, however, when compared to third-generation of the same ethnic origin. Country-specific analysis reveals some meaningful differences in income gain/loss within the major ethnic groups. For example, whereas white immigrants from Western Europe and the United Kingdom experience gain in the first generation, all nonwhites groups (except Indians) experience loss. The findings suggest that race and ethnicity continue to play a major role in the American labor market.

From overpaid corporate executives to job-thieving technology, past research has pointed to a number of different culprits behind the rise in income inequality. But University of Minnesota economist Fatih Guvenen, along with four other researchers, has unveiled a fresh perspective, one they believe deserves a closer look. Their recent research finds much of U.S. income inequality can be explained in the mundane arena of company organization charts. That is, the way firms shape and reshape the way they do business. The conclusions are drawn from a staggering amount of government data, assembled and analyzed for the first time across a vast stretch of time. The study, the first of its kind, required gathering payroll and employment records of an average of 70 million workers at more than five million firms from 1981 through 2013. The job involved matching Social Security records with Employer Identification Numbers in a compilation that would strain, if not break, standards spreadsheets.

Rich federal data resources provide essential data inputs for monitoring the health and health care of the US population and are essential for conducting health services policy research. The six household surveys we document in this article cover a broad array of health topics, including health insurance coverage (American Community Survey, Current Population Survey), health conditions and behaviors (National Health Interview Survey, Behavior Risk Factor Surveillance System), health care utilization and spending (Medical Expenditure Panel Survey), and longitudinal data on public program participation (SIPP). New federal activities are linking federal surveys with administrative data to reduce duplication and response burden. In the private sector, vendors are aggregating data from medical records and claims to enhance our understanding of treatment, quality, and outcomes of medical care. Federal agencies must continue to innovate to meet the continuous challenges of scarce resources, pressures for more granular data, and new multimode data collection methodologies.

Post-earthquake fire ignition (PEFI) can lead to severe structural damage following an earthquake. Estimating the risk of such ignitions in buildings and identifying methods to abate it are essential steps in an overall effort to mitigate the impact of post-earthquake fires in urban areas. While several models have been developed for areas with available historical PEFI data, such as the Western United States, no such models have been developed for areas with little or no data specific for post-earthquake fires. Examples of such areas are seismic regions in the Midwestern United States. The lack of PEFI data for these areas is due to the fact that at the time of several significant earthquakes in the early nineteenth century, most earthquake-stricken communities where rural. With the growth of urban areas in the region, a need exists for a methodology that can be effectively used in estimating PEFI risks when no or little historical data is available. In this research, it was found that models for PEFI risk estimation may indeed be developed using available data on ignitions for normal conditions as a basis and then using some type of a modification factor to account for the significance of future earthquakes. This modification factor depends on the characteristics of the region in terms of seismic activities and the type and distribution of buildings and their potential in promoting ignitions. The term “normal condition ignition” (NCI) refers to an ignition that occurs due to everyday activities and routine operations in a building. In a residential building, such activities include, for example, operating heating units and burners, cooking, and mechanical malfunction of appliances. In this research, it was found that four factors specifically affect PEFI risk and can be used to develop models for risk estimation. These are (1) spatial characteristics such as geographic concentration of particular building types; (2) ignitability characteristics, such as the sources of ignitions in a particular building type, (3) earthquake characteristics (such as the peak ground acceleration); and (4) temporal characteristics, such as the time of the earthquake and seasonality. Accordingly, models for estimating the risk of post-earthquake fire ignition occurrence are developed. These models are tested, and the model parameters calibrated, using information in areas for which both the NCI and PEFI data are available (such as in the Western United States). To illustrate the applicability of the models developed and proposed in this study, St. Louis City is considered. This constitutes a major urban area vulnerable to potential future seismic activities because of proximity to the New Madrid Fault Zone. Using the NCI data for this area, PEFI risk values are estimated based on probable future seismic activities in the region. The results are presented in terms of estimated annual risk of post-earthquake fires for the area specifically for residential buildings (such as single or multifamily dwellings). The study further discusses the significance of PEFI models, their limitations and also provides suggestions for the future continuation of the research.

Environmental regulation can impact local labor markets, potentially reducing incomes and employment and inducing reallocation across sectors. The labor market consequences of environmental regulation are difficult to isolate because regulations frequently apply to large areas, such as the entire United States, and researchers cannot directly observe the counterfactual, in the absence of regulation. I claim that protection of the northern spotted owl in the Pacific Northwest in the 1990s led to an exogenous decline in labor demand in that region. I use this policy change to identify the local and regional impacts of endangered species regulation on employment and incomes in the timber industry. I estimate the local labor market impact of owl protection by comparing counties in the region with and without owl-protected areas. Depending on the choice of control areas and the inclusion of additional control factors, northern spotted owl protection plausibly led to a small loss of incomes and employment in the region . . .

Using the 3-year microdata sample of the American Community Survey for 20092011, we examine the effect of state-level public school teacher salaries relative to those of other college graduates in the state not employed in education on the decision to teach. We find that relative teacher salaries in the state positively affect the share of education majors that are employed as public school teachers at the time of the survey. The effect for males majoring in math, science, and computer education is largest among all estimated effects. A statistically significant effect is also found among females majoring in elementary education.

A recent series of studies by the Equality of Opportunity Project has documented substantial geographical differences in intergenerational income mobility. These spatial differences are important because they suggest that place matters more than previously thought in determining economic well-being. In this paper, we show that family characteristics vary widely across areas and simulations indicate that differences these family characteristics can explain a substantial share of the variation in intergenerational income mobility across places documented by the Equality of the Opportunity Project. Additionally, we show that the characteristics of families that move differ substantially from families that do not move, which raise doubts about the external validity of causal inferences based on the Equality of Opportunity Project’s analysis of movers.

In 1980, housing prices in large US cities rose with distance from the city center. By 2010, that relationship had reversed. We propose that the inversion can be traced to more hours worked by the skilled. Scarce non-market time downgrades the importance of residential space and upgrades that of proximity to work, factors favoring the central-city location. Geocoded census micro data covering the 27 largest US cities and the period 1980-2010 support our hypothesis: full-time skilled workers are more likely to locate in the city center and their growth can account for the observed price changes.

The Black-White wealth gap has been a significant topic of research among social scientists studying inequality. Research on the racial wealth gap has emphasized two variables with which to measure wealth: home and business ownership. This body of research often examines relatively contemporary factors that influence racial wealth inequality. However, less attention has been paid to historical influences. Specifically, little research has assessed associations between the peculiar institution of slavery and contemporary racial wealth disparities. Because patterns of inequality are shaped over long periods of time, the historical institution of slavery is one element that likely has important implications for the racial wealth disparities we see today. Of course, wealth creation is about the accrual of assets. Yet the literature suggests that since the time of slavery African American efforts to accumulate capital have often been systematically limited. This project aims to explore the extent to which the institution of slavery has shaped the development of contemporary levels of economic capital among Black versus White Americans. The project uses data collected from the 1860 historical census, the Census Bureau’s Characteristics of Businesses: 2007, and the Census Bureau’s 2007 American Community Survey. Building on prior research, I examine the association between the presence and magnitude of slavery in counties in the Southern United States and black/white differences in home and business ownership. Results show that net of other factors a historically higher slave density in a county is associated with a decrease in black business and home ownership in that county. Conversely, for whites, an increase in slave density is associated with an increase in business and home ownership. Hence, social scientists should be attuned to how the long reach of historical institutions may be implicated in contemporary patterns of economic inequality.