This chapter analyses how the process of industrialization and increasing labour demand for workers influenced the type of education provided in schools for girls, women's empowerment and their participation in the labour market. In order to analyse this process, it focuses mainly on Bogotá's labour market. The chapter discusses women's education during the period under study and describes the different types of education. It also discusses how the mentality of the citizens changed regarding the role and functions of women in society. The chapter deals with the evolution of women's participation in education and the labour market. The study cohort from the Employment and Unemployment Survey, between 1963 and 1970, shows that there was a significant improvement in the average years of education for both genders. It is important to note that although the mindset regarding the role of women changed to incorporate educational and work spaces, women's contribution to production and income was still perceived as secondary.

Background. In this paper, we address the challenge of recovering a time sequence of counts from aggre- gated historical data. For example, given a mixture of the monthly and weekly sums, how can we find the daily counts of people infected with flu? In general, what is the best way to recover historical counts from aggregated, possibly overlapping historical reports, in the presence of missing values? Equally importantly, how much should we trust this reconstruction? Current methods fail to handle complex cases such as miss- ing value, conflicting and overlapping report, while our method not only deal with these cases successfully, but also recover the time sequence with higher accuracy by incorporating domain knowledge. Aim. In this project, we are particularly interested in this question: how can you recover historical events form aggregated and overlapping historical reports? That is, suppose that we are interested in an un- known time sequence ⃗x = {x1, x2, . . . , xn} (daily observation of certain event), given several aggregated reports(monthly sums, yearly sums), how can we reconstruct the original sequence from them? Data. Our dataset is the Tycho dataset, which is a project at the University of Pittsburgh to advance the availability and use of public health data for science and policy making. Currently, the Project Tycho database includes data from all weekly notifiable disease reports for the United States. It dates back to 1888 and covers all the states in US. The types of diseases include measles, smallpox etc. Method. We provide H-FUSE, a novel method that solves above problems by allowing injection of domain knowledge in a principled way, and turning the task into a well-defined optimization problem utilizing regularization strategies based on knowledge of the historical events, such as smoothness and periodicity. H-FUSE has the following desirable properties: (a) Effectiveness, recovering historical data from aggregated reports with high accuracy; (b) Self-awareness, providing an assessment of when the recovery is not reliable; (c) Scalability, computationally linear on the size of the input data. Results. Experiments on the real data (epidemiology counts from the Tycho project) demonstrates that H-FUSE reconstructs the original data 30 − 80% better than the least squares method. Conclusions. We develop a way to recover a time sequence from its partial sums, by formulating it as an optimization problem with various constraints which allows the injection of domain knowledge. Our work extends the previous pseudo-inverse method, and will provide a new way to reconstruct time series from historical data with faster performance and higher accuracy.

With nearly half of US births occurring out of wedlock, understanding how parents navigate their relationship options is important. This paper examines the consequences of a large exogenous change to parental relationship contract options on parental behavior and child well-being. Identification comes from the staggered timing of state reforms that substantially lowered the cost of legal paternity establishment. I show that the resulting increases in paternity establishment are partially driven by reductions in parental marriage. Although unmarried fathers become more involved with their children along some dimensions, the net effects on father involvement and child well-being are negative or zero.

Spatial distribution patterns of social groups can be studied through the use of digital “boundary” files, or “shapefiles,” and data from the U.S. Census. Shapefiles are readily available for recent decades but they are not available for 1940 and earlier. QGIS, an open-source Geographic Information System, has been utilized to create shapefiles that represent enumeration districts of Charleston, South Carolina, and Buffalo, New York using archived photos of enumeration district maps used in the 1940 U.S. Census. Through work with Dr. Mark Fossett, a professor in Texas A&M’s Sociology department, the shapefiles have been analyzed in combination with newly released historical census data from 1940 to examine racial-ethnic segregation and patterns of foreign-born populations. This work contributes to a larger project investigating residential distributions of racial and ethnic subpopulations within these, and other, cities. As comparable maps do not currently exist, the shapefiles and maps constitute new and valuable resources for the study of ethnic segregation and urban population distributions in major US cities in 1940 and will permit comparisons of segregation patterns in other decades. These maps will be especially valuable tools in this area of study as maps reveal patterns that cannot be easily identified via statistical analysis and they also communicate patterns effectively to broad 2 audiences that are not trained in using technical summary measures of segregation. In addition to contributing to Dr. Fossett’s project, the shapefiles will be available for several other research projects that are underway using the 1940 data at the Texas Federal Statistical Research Data Center at Texas A&M University.

This paper is motivated by the fact that nearly half of U.S. college students drop out without earning a bachelor's degree. Its objective is to quantify how much uncertainty college entrants face about their graduation outcomes. To do so, we develop a quantitative model of college choice. The innovation is to model in detail how students progress towards a college degree. The model is calibrated using transcript and financial data. We find that more than half of college entrants can predict whether they will graduate with at least 80% probability. As a result, stylized policies that insure students against the financial risks associated with uncertain graduation have little value for the majority of college entrants.

Elite occupations are characterised by the magnitude of income accumulation. This paper however shows that the cumulative effects on group earnings is a pattern visible across the strata of the society. The literature on identity, stratification, and intersectionality has long shown the importance of group identity in explaining the persistence of income inequality. By taking a group perspective to individuals, the contribution of this paper is to reveal that elitist earnings, whereby one group earn disproportionately at the expense of other demographic groups at the occupational level, exist across the labour force. The case studies on the US and UK labour force show that elitist earnings is a group phenomenon, not specific to elitist occupations. There is in effect a pattern of elitist earnings across occupations for a dominant group, mainly white male or female, at the expense of other racial, ethnic, and gender groups.

Using the restricted Census data of 1930 and 1940, this study will revisit spatial assimilation by examining the trends and patterns of European immigrant groups in the major U.S. cities. This study makes several contributions. First, the restricted micro data provides covers 100% count and reaches high-resolution geographic scales (e.g. enumeration district) as well. Second, this study will employ refined segregation measurement to improve methodological deficiencies pertaining to majority-minority segregation in the prior studies. Third, we will employ fractional logit regression model for segregation indices attainment analysis. This approach link individual characteristics to the broader segregation patterns (Fossett, 2009).The preliminary finding is based on Chicago indicating that with acculturation and growth in socioeconomic status, European immigrants generally follow the assumption of spatial assimilation. However, a substantial part of European immigrants demonstrated different assimilation patterns even though they had similar skin colors. That may be due to cultural factors (e.g. language).

We show that migration during the last 500 years induced differences in contemporary health outcomes. The theory behind our analysis is related to the risks of premature death, and builds on three physiological facts. First, vitamin D deficiency is directly associated with higher risk of all-cause mortality. Second, the ability of humans to synthesize vitamin D from sunlight (i.e., ultraviolet radiation, UV-R) declines with skin pigmentation. Third, skin pigmentation is the result of an evolutionary compromise between its costs and its benefits (e.g. higher risk of vitamin D deficiency and lower risk of skin cancer), which explains why natives of high UV-R regions became more intensely pigmented. In accord with these physiologycal premises, when individuals indigenous to high UV-R regions migrate to low UV-R regions, the risk of vitamin D deficiency rises markedly, and with it the risk of premature death. We develop a measure that allows us to explore the aggregate health consequences of migration, as caused by the potential risk of vitamin D deficiency induced by historical population flows. Our results show that a higher potential risk of vitamin D deficiency induced by migration between the years 1500 and 2000 holds strong explanatory power vis-à-vis aggregate indicators of health today, across countries, and across US states.

The geographical diversity of the Indian diaspora has been shaped against the backdrop of the historical forces of colonialism, nationalism and neoliberal globalization. In each of these global moments, the demand for Indian workers has created the multiple global pathways of the Indian diasporas. The Routledge Handbook of the Indian Diaspora introduces readers to the contexts and histories that constitute the Indian diaspora. It brings together scholars from different parts of the globe, representing various disciplines, and covers extensive spatial and temporal terrain. Contributors draw from a variety of archives and intellectual perspectives in order to map the narratives of the Indian diaspora. The topics covered range from the history of diasporic communities, activism, identity, gender, politics, labour, policy, violence, performance, literature and branding. The handbook analyses a wide array of issues and debates and is organised in six parts . . .

This thesis comprises of three studies which attempt to address unanswered questions in the prior research on the role of IT in firm innovation specifically: How do firms manage their capabilities and activities with respect to innovation via various types of IT-related resources? The first study of this thesis attempts to address one such gap by theorizing and testing how firms manage their capability for creating innovation (i.e., absorptive capacity) via an IT-related human resource (i.e., high-skilled foreign tech professionals). Regression analyses on 80 semiconductor and 77 software firms suggest that U.S. high-tech firms seek to manage their innovation-related capability by recruiting foreign talents due to their low inter-firm labor mobility as a result of visa regulations. This can counter the high-levels of inter-firm labor mobility in high-tech industries which hampers firms’ innovation capability. The second study of this thesis attempts to address another such gap by investigating whether major IT systems implemented in firms (e.g., ERP, KMS, HRMS, CRM, and SCM) can help them to conduct their entrepreneurial actions of creating new businesses, a key form of innovation activity. This study exploits a unique population-level panel survey data on South Korean firms during the 2007-2013 period. Initial analyses on 7839 South Korean manufacturing firms find that the number of IT systems implemented in the firm increases the probability of conducting entrepreneurial actions of creating new businesses (i.e., plan to start a new business). In addition, the impact of the number of IT on firms’ plan to start a new business in industries different from their current industry is strengthened under turbulent environments i.e., in this case, the financial crisis period; 2008-2009. Building on these results, the third study plans to conduct fuzzyset Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fs/QCA) to identify portfolios of IT systems in firms which can contribute to their entrepreneurial actions.

Current research on wealth inequality attributes the main reason for the long-run divergence in wealth inequality to the r − g gap, where r is the rate of return on capital and g is the economy’s growth rate. Nonetheless, speculations about capital and the rate of return on capital - it’s definition and measurement - have raised concerns about deriving the r − g gap. This paper addresses the concentration of wealth by investigating income from property ownership. Specifically, it focuses on 3 main issues: (i) I provide an alternative measure for the Piketty r − g gap, by deriving the rate of return on property ownership (rp), and show that the gap between the long-run rate of return on property ownership (¯rp) and the long-run growth in the economy (¯g) explains the fast rise in wealth inequality; (ii) I show that when traditional models that focus on production only are used to capture the natural behavior of wealth inequality, wealth inequality tends to be inconclusive or explosive over the long-run; and (iii) I implement the new measure of rp −g into a simple model of wealth accumulation, that takes into account both productive and non-productive capital in generating wealth. Using the United States as a study case, I find that wealth inequality is more concentrated than suggested in the literature.

The United States has long been perceived as a land of opportunity for immigrants. Yet, both in the past and today, US natives have expressed concern that immigrants fail to integrate into US society and lower wages for existing workers. This paper reviews the literatures on historical and contemporary migrant flows, yielding new insights on migrant selection, assimilation of immigrants into US economy and society, and the effect of immigration on the labor market.

We develop a new methodology for quantifying the tasks undertaken within occupations using over 3,000 verbs from more than 12,000 occupational descriptions in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOTs). Using micro-data from the United States from 1880-2000, we nd an increase in the employment share of interactive occupations within sectors over time that is larger in metro areas than non-metro areas. We interpret these ndings using a model in which reductions in transport and communication costs induce urban areas to specialize according to their comparative advantage in interactive tasks. We presenting suggestive evidence relating increases in employment in interactive occupations to improvements in transport and communication technologies. Our ndings highlight a change in the nature of agglomeration over time towards an increased emphasis on human interaction.

This paper presents theory and evidence on the role of environmental amenities in shaping the competitiveness of post-industrial cities. I assemble a rich database at a fine spatial resolution to examine the impact of historical pollution on the distribution of skilled workers and residents within cities today. I find that census tracts downwind of highly polluted 1970s industrial sites were associated with higher pollution levels in the 1970s but not after 2000. However, they were less skilled and had lower wage and housing values in 2000, a pattern which became more prominent between 1980 and 2000. These findings suggest the presence of skill sorting on pollution and strong subsequent agglomeration effects. To quantify the contribution of different mechanisms, I build and estimate a multi-sector spatial equilibrium framework that introduces hetero-geneity in local productivity and workers' valuation for local amenities across sectors, and allows initial sorting to be magnified by production and residential externalities. Estimation of the model suggests that historical pollution is associated with lower current productivity and amenity levels. The effects are more pronounced for productivity, more skilled sectors and central tracts. I use the framework to evaluate the impact of counterfactual pollution cuts in different parts of cities on nationwide welfare and the cross-city distribution of skills. †

From the rhetoric during and since the 2016 presidential election, one would think that the United States continues to experience a surge of low-skilled immigration. Although in previous decades such labor inflows certainly occurred, since the Great Recession U.S. borders have become a far less active place when it comes to the net arrival of foreign labor. The number of undocumented immigrants has declined in absolute terms, while the overall population of low-skilled foreignborn workers has remained stable. In this paper, we examine how the scale and composition of low-skilled immigration in the United States has evolved over time and how relative income growth and demographic shifts in the Western Hemisphere have contributed to the recent immigration slowdown. Because major source countries for U.S. immigration are now seeing and will continue to see weak labor-supply growth relative to the United States, the future immigration of young low-skilled workers looks set to decline further, whether or not U.S. immigration policies take a more draconian turn.

As climate change advances, its effects on agriculture and nutrition outcomes should be considered in research. A particular focus in climate change research has been on how changes in the amount and distribution of rainfall change agricultural production in poor countries. These changes are particularly dire among farmers who are dependent on rainfall rather than irrigation. Households specializing in either cash or food crop production may exhibit different levels of vulnerability to weather shocks. Specialization in cash crop cultivation may provide households with ready cash to purchase food and other necessary items even in the years of bad harvests as opposed to food cropping, where most of the harvest is consumed within the household. Here, we combine detailed information on agricultural specialization and climate change in Kenya and Mali to investigate in what ways agricultural specialization in either cash crop or food crop production influences children’s health.

State and local policymakers are very interested in how attending college in one’s home state affects the likelihood of living in that state after college. This paper uses cohort-level data from the American Community Survey, decennial censuses, and other sources to examine how birthstate college enrollment affects birth-state residence several years later. Ordinary least squares and instrumental variables estimates both suggest a statistically significant positive relationship. The preferred instrumental variable estimates suggest that a one percentage point increase in birth-state enrollment rates increases later life birth-state residence by roughly 0.41 percentage points. Implications for policy are discussed.

The effects of health insurance on poverty have been difficult to ascertain because US poverty measures have not taken into account the need for health care and the value of health benefits. We developed the first US poverty measure to include the need for health insurance and to count health insurance benefits as resources available to meet that need—in other words, a health-inclusive poverty measure. We estimated the direct effects of health insurance benefits on health-inclusive poverty for people younger than age sixty-five, comparing the impacts of different health insurance programs and of nonhealth means-tested cash and in-kind benefits, refundable tax credits, and nonhealth social insurance programs. Private health insurance benefits reduced poverty by 3.7 percentage points. Public health insurance benefits (from Medicare, Medicaid, and Affordable Care Act premium subsidies) accounted for nearly one-third of the overall poverty reduction from public benefits. Poor adults with neither children nor a disability experienced little poverty relief from public programs, and what relief they did receive came mostly from premium subsidies and other public health insurance benefits. Medicaid had a larger effect on child poverty than all nonhealth means-tested benefits combined.

The recent presidential campaign revived concerns about the state of the American job market. Many observers who are convinced that improving employment indicators mask pervasive hardship cite the increase in the number of prime-age men (those between the ages of 25 and 54) who are neither working nor looking for work; that is, men who are out of the labor force, or inactive. While this upward trend is routinely taken as a sign of the economy’s weakness, other interpretations are possible. This paper attempts to clarify why inactivity in the labor force among prime-age men has grown so steadily for so long. It examines trends in a number of labor market indicators to assess the extent to which rising inactivity rates have reflected a worsening of the job market (lower demand) or reduced job-seeking (lower supply). Finally, it takes a detailed look at four different types of prime-age inactive men—the disabled, the retired, those who want a job, and those who do not. The evidence does not support the view that rising inactivity is the result of a weak labor market. Understanding why prime-age male inactivity has risen requires a focus on disability programs. Public policy should focus on helping the unemployed and inactive men who want jobs—the latter a small share of the inactive—and on reforming disability programs to promote independence. The unemployment rate provides a reliable indicator of changes in the labor market’s strength, even if it understates the level of involuntary joblessness. Policymakers might consider adopting a new “U5b” rate that includes inactive people who want a job with those incorporated in the existing unemployment rate, in order to institutionalize a broader measure of joblessness and increase faith in jobless statistics.

In this paper it was found that BID areas did have a significantly lower number of crimes and arrests. Unfortunately, accurate data on this subject was unavailable. These two papers though do illustrate the difficulties in removing bias from estimators due to the existence of or lack of a criminal culture.