New York City, like many other cities across the world, is experiencing a housing crisis attributed primarily to rising rents against stagnant wages for many New Yorkers. As a result, over half the city’s renters pay more than 30% of their household income toward rent, limiting their resources for other essentials like health and education. Mayoral administrations have often prioritized the crisis and designed tools to increase affordable housing stock. Inclusionary Housing in New York is one such tool, designed to integrate production of affordable homes with market development. The technique is typically tied with re-zoning activities and incentivizes the creation of affordable units by offering FAR bonuses in exchange for permanently affordable units. While these initiatives are often contentious for their transformative nature, the city continues to up-zone neighborhoods to facilitate development on underutilized land, add to housing stock and promote diversity. While there is exhaustive literature that critically analyzes inclusionary housing policy across the nation, there is limited public knowledge about the effectiveness in specific housing markets. This thesis investigates the outcome of one such program from 2005, in the GreenpointWilliamsburg neighborhood of north Brooklyn. Considering the limited specific data about production and affordability of inclusionary units, the document relies on reviewing the policy’s text to estimate the number of units produced and argues that production simply does not meet the need for affordable housing

We use 130 years of data on historical migrations to the U.S. to show a causal effect of the ancestry composition of U.S. counties on foreign direct investment (FDI) sent and received by local firms. To isolate the causal effect of ancestry on FDI, we build a simple reduced-form model of migrations: Migrations from a foreign country to a U.S. county at a given time depend on (1) a push factor, causing emigration from that foreign country to the entire U.S., and (2) a pull factor, causing immigration from all origins into that U.S. county. The interaction between time-series variation in origin-specific push factors and destination-specific pull factors generates quasi-random variation in the allocation of migrants across U.S. counties. We find that doubling the number of residents with ancestry from a given foreign country relative to the mean increases the probability that at least one local firm engages in FDI with that country by 4 percentage points. We present evidence that this effect is primarily driven by a reduction in information frictions, and not by better contract enforcement, taste similarities, or a convergence in factor endowments.

An allocation-based rate (ABR) is a special type of increasing block rate (IBR) price structure that is receiving increased attention from urban water suppliers in places like California where population growth and climate change continue to increase water scarcity. Previous work by Baerenklau et al. [Baerenklau, KA, KA Schwabe and A Dinar (2014a). Allocation-based water pricing promotes conservation while keeping user costs low. Agricultural and Resource Economics Update, 17(6), 1–14; Baerenklau, KA, KA Schwabe and A Dinar (2014b). The residential water demand effect of increasing block rate water budgets. Land Economics, 90(4), 683–699.] investigates the conservation potential of ABR and finds that consumption under ABR was 10–15% below that of a comparable uniform rate structure for a southern California case study. This paper extends that work by using the discrete–continuous choice framework to estimate household-level welfare effects of ABR for the same dataset. We find that despite the observed dec...

This paper explores the relationship between household income inequality and macroeconomic uncertainty in the United States. Using a novel large-scale macroeconometric model, we shed light on regional disparities of inequality responses to a national uncertainty shock. The results suggest that income inequality decreases in most states, with a pronounced degree of heterogeneity in terms of the dynamic responses. By contrast, some few states, mostly located in the Midwest, display increasing levels of income inequality over time. Forecast error variance and historical decompositions highlight the importance of uncertainty shocks in explaining income inequality in most regions considered. Finally, we explain differences in the responses of income inequality by means of a simple regression analysis. These regressions reveal that the income composition as well as labor market fundamentals determine the directional pattern of the dynamic responses. JEL CODES: C11, C30, E3, D31

The Census Bureau collects extensive numeric data on the residents of the United States as well ast the national economy. This is accomplished both through a decennial census as well as numerous other more frequent surveys. The decennial census is a fundamental basis of American democracy, mandated by the U.S. Constitution and essential for the equal representation in a democratic government. Numeric census data are maintained in vast collections of tables and organized at many different levels of geographies. From the Census website, the geographic and tabular data can be downloaded and then joined for display and analysis within a GIS. Because of the nature of individual data aggregated over areas and other matters, care must be taken to avoid statistical errors when undertaking spatial analyses.

Despite the relevance of the automatability of male and female jobs, only limited research has been conducted on this topic. Using and replicating data from Brookings Institution, CNBC, IWPR, McKinsey, PIAAC, and PwC, we performed analyses and made estimates regarding share of jobs with potential high rates of automation by worker characteristics (%, across countries), the number of women and men in occupations with low and high risk of automation, and in the total workforce (2014–2018, in millions), and share of tasks that could be automated with current technologies (%). The results of a study based on collected data and estimates provide support for our research model.

This study proposes an entrepreneurship model that (1) uses sociological literature on ethnic stratification to develop a typology of subdominant, marginalized, subordinate, and outcast minority groups and (2) applies geographic principles to spatially define variation in entrepreneurial environments in terms of urban hierarchies, regional milieus, and hinterland centres. Examining retail enterprise, the study utilizes the interactionist approach, which holds that ethnic business differences result from an interplay of groups’ attributes (supply) and locations’ opportunity structures (demand). The study extends this approach by incorporating the mixed embeddedness concept, which stresses the importance of ethnic groups’ situation in broad social, political, and institutional contexts. Regression analyses of Census data for US cities in 1900 show why retail enterprise among outcast minorities is demand-side resistant, while retail enterprise among marginalized minorities is demand-side reactive. The model thus yields insights into how ethnic stratification and geographical positions interact to produce inequalities of ethnic entrepreneurship.

Objectives. Hispanic/Latino children have substantially lower prevalence of neurodevelopmental disabilities than other groups (Boyle et al., 2011; Froehlich et al., 2007; Pedersen et al., 2012). The explanation for variations in prevalence are complex, but are generally thought to be related to language barriers and lack of access to and utilization of healthcare services. Previous research focused on how language barriers and lack of access to and utilization of healthcare services affects children with neurodevelopmental disabilities (NDD), but no research has examined whether these factors predict NDD. This study extends prior research by examining if social and environmental factors explain low prevalence of NDD in this population. Methods. This study uses nationally representative Integrated Public Use Microdata Series National Health Interview Survey data and multivariate analyses to compare NDD prevalence in whites and Hispanics/Latinos and examines whether healthcare access, healthcare utilization, language barriers, and length of time living in the United States (U.S.) explains this disability disparity. Results. Findings reveal that the H/L NDD disparity is not explained by differences in access to or utilization of healthcare, or as a result of spoken language differences that may create barriers to NDD diagnosis. However, while H/Ls born in the U.S. have lower rates of NDD than whites, H/Ls who were not born in the U.S. have even lower probability of NDD than H/Ls who were born in the U.S.

The author’s 2017 reappraisal of the impact of the Mariel supply shock revealed that the wage of low-skill workers declined in post-Mariel Miami. Clemens and Hunt (2019) assert that a data quirk in the March CPS—specifically, a substantial increase in the black share of Miami’s low-skill workforce in the period—implies that those wage trends do not correctly measure the impact of the Marielitos. Because blacks earn less than whites earn, the increased black share would spuriously reduce the average low-skill wage in Miami. The author examines the sensitivity of the evidence to the change in the racial composition of the sample. The Clemens and Hunt assertion is demonstrably false. The timing of the post-Mariel decline in Miami’s wage does not coincide with the increase in the black share. And sensible adjustments for racial composition do not change the finding that Miami’s low-skill wage fell after 1980.

We use novel large-scale data on 43 million Americans from the 2000 Census and the 2001 to 2013 American Communities Survey linked to the Social Security Administration's NUMIDENT to study how a policy-driven increase in economic resources for families affects children's long-term outcomes. Using variation from the county-level roll-out of the Food Stamps program between 1961 and 1975, we find that children with access to greater economic resources before age five experienced an increase of 6 percent of a standard deviation in their adult human capital, 3 percent of a standard deviation in their adult economic self-sufficiency, 8 percent of a standard deviation in the quality of their adult neighborhoods, 0.4 percentage point increase in longevity, and a 0.5 percentage point decrease in likelihood of being incarcerated. provided exceptional assistance in translating string names in the SSA's NUMIDENT file into GNIS codes. We also thank Ariel Binder, Chris Campos, Dorian Carloni, Grant Graziani, Krista Ruffini, Bryan Stuart, and Brenden Timpe for excellent research assistance and Clint Carter for the many hours spent helping us disclose these results. A pre-analysis plan for this project can be found at https://osf.io/t6vsz.

The negative effects of unemployment are significant, and the potential for increased morbidity and mortality is a major public health challenge. Negative effects may be partially attributable to health behavior change and loss of social ties. Exercise has positive physical and mental health benefits and could help buffer such negative effects. This study examines whether time in social and solitary exercise varies by unemployment and out of the labor force (OOLF) status because exercise, especially social exercise, provides health benefits. Methods: Gender-stratified ordinary least squares models are estimated using data from the nationally representative 2003-2016 American Time Use Surveys to test how own and partner employment status are associated with total time in exercise, exercise alone, with children, with a partner, and with others. Results: Unemployed and OOLF men spend significantly more time in exercise alone (3-9 minutes, p<.05) and with others (about 13 minutes,p<.001) compared to employed men. Unemployed women spend significantly more time in exercise with others (6 minutes, p<.05), and OOLF women in all types of social exercise (1-9 minutes, p<.05), compared to employed women. Conclusions: Unemployed and OOLF individuals engage in more social exercise, which could be leveraged to help buffer loss of social ties and improve health. Exercise-related interventions may help reduce negative health consequences of unemployment. Keywords: physical activity, employment, American Time Use Survey

Lauren Resnick, an educational psychologist, claims, “all students can learn to be ‘smart’” through a process called educational nurturing. In this paper, I explore the central question: Is it feasible that policies can be designed and introduced that will eradicate the achievement gap? I identify racism as the root cause of the systemic problems in the United States, and name the achievement gap as the most inequitable outcome in the education system. Because the achievement gap is racial between white students and Students of Color, countertheories of cognitive inferiority are debunked. Next I explore previous literature on what has worked in past efforts to close the achievement gap. The research shows that anti-bias training that raises educators’ expectations of Students of Color, followed by detracking homogeneous (racial) grouping are both effective methods to close the achievement gap, but they cannot be sustainably successful alone. A third support structure needs . . .

Using unique linked data, we examine income inequality and mobility across racial and ethnic groups in the United States. Our data encompass the universe of income tax filers in the United States for the period 2000–2014, matched with individual-level race and ethnicity information from multiple censuses and American Community Survey data. We document both income inequality and mobility trends over the period. We find significant stratification in terms of average incomes by racial/ethnic group and distinct differences in within-group income inequality. The groups with the highest incomes— whites and Asians—also have the highest levels of within-group inequality and the lowest levels of within-group mobility. The reverse is true for the lowest-income groups: blacks, American Indians, and Hispanics have lower within-group inequality and immobility. On the other hand, low-income groups are also highly immobile in terms of overall, rather than within-group, mobility. These same groups also have a higher probability of experiencing downward mobility compared with whites and Asians. We also find that within-group income inequality increased for all groups between 2000 and 2014, and the increase was especially large for whites. The picture that emerges from our analysis is of a rigid income structure, with mainly whites and Asians positioned at the top and blacks, American Indians, and Hispanics confined to the bottom.

The migrant crisis is one of the most challenging tasks the EU has ever faced. In this paper, we assess the impact of immigration and unemployment for a sample of 15 EU countries between 1997 and 2016. We test for the existence of a core-periphery dualism based on differences in macroeconomic fundamentals and labour market characteristics. We use a Panel Error Correction Model to assess the direction and persistence of the impact of immigration on domestic unemployment in the short and in the long run. In the long run, immigration is found to reduce unemployment in all peripheral-countries. In core countries, we find no long-run impact of immigration on unemployment due to substantial heterogeneity. As for short-run dynamics, we find a confirmation of the result that immigration reduces unemployment for the whole sample. Based on differences in employment protection and activity rates, larger impacts are found for Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon countries, while lower and less significant impacts are found for Italy, Greece and Portugal. Our results suggest that negative sentiments toward immigration due to labour market competition are mostly unjustified.

This article offers a framework that allows for the simultaneous comparison of all sexual orientation–gender–race/ethnicity groups after controlling for characteristics. The analysis suggests that occupations matter in explaining earnings differences among groups. The article also displays the high magnitude of the gender wage gap in an intersectional framework. The sexual orientation wage premium of lesbians is quite small for blacks and much higher for Hispanics and Asians than for whites. For men, departing from the white heterosexual model involves a substantial punishment; the racial penalty is larger for heterosexuals whereas the sexual orientation penalty is greater for whites.

The State Hospital for the Insane at Jacksonville, Morgan County, Illinois, was the first public hospital of its kind to be established in the state and among the earliest to be built on the ‘Kirkbride Plan’. It opened for patients in 1851. We describe the background to the establishment of the hospital and, so far as is possible from publicly available sources, its catchment area, the nature of the patients held there up to 1880, its mechanisms of discharge, and supposed causes of death. We end with a plea that after over 150 years, the release of hospital casebooks and similar records in digital form would be of considerable benefit to historians of psychology, scientific biographers, genealogists and demographers.

Precarious work, which has become more prevalent in the United States in recent decades, is disproportionately experienced by workers of lower socio-economic classes, and research suggests that the erosion of worker power has contributed to this class polarization in precarity. One dimension of precarious work of growing interest to scholars and policymakers is instability faced by workers in the amount and regularity of their work hours. However, we know little about the magnitude of month-to-month or week-to-week (intra-year) volatility in hours worked, the extent of class-based polarization in this measure of job quality, and whether worker power moderates this polarization. In this paper, we make novel use of the panel nature of the nationally-representative Current Population Survey (CPS) to estimate intra-year volatility in the actual hours respondents report working in the previous week across four consecutive survey months. Using this new measure, we then show that, net of demographic characteristics and controls for occupation and industry, low-wage workers experience disproportionately greater work hour volatility. Finally, we find evidence that reductions in marketplace bargaining power--as measured by higher state-level unemployment rates--increase wage- and education-based polarization in work hour volatility, while increases in associational power--as measured by union coverage--reduce wage-based polarization in work hour volatility.

This paper examines the effects of the Great Recession on the gender difference in hourly wage and the rate of return to schooling in the United States. Using data from American Community Survey 2000–2015, we find that the male-female difference in hourly wage declined during and after the recession. The Great Recession decreased earnings for both men and women, especially for those with more education. We also find there is a significant gender difference in the effects of the Great Recession on the returns to schooling. The Great Recession increased the rate of return to schooling for both men and women, and the female-male difference in the returns to schooling decreased by 0.4 percentage points in the post-recession period. The change of the gender difference in the returns to schooling can be explained by the wage structure change for men and women over the recession.

Women make up about half of the U.S. workforce today, but many jobs remain largely segregated along gender lines. A look at the fields where women have made the most inroads, and the least.

Exploiting variation across states and municipalities in the timing and details of midwifery laws introduced during the period 1900-1940, and using data assembled from various primary sources, we find that requiring midwives to be licensed reduced maternal mortality by 7-8 percent and may have led to modest reductions in infant mortality. These estimates represent the strongest evidence to date that licensing restrictions can improve the health of consumers and are directly relevant to ongoing policy debates on the merits of licensing midwives.