This paper asks if the sociability of work contributes to gendered labor market inequalities. Socializing with coworkers is a way to cultivate social capital and is an increasingly prominent aspect of corporate culture. Access to social interactions thus provides access to organizational resources and is a potential mechanism of social closure in workplaces. Dominant groups, such as men in male-dominated workplaces, can limit access to social interactions by controlling the timing, context, and content of social interactions to exclude subordinate groups. This study combines data from the American Time Use Survey and National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1979, to test the role of sociability in explaining gender inequalities in job tenure, promotions, and earnings. In all three cases, sociability is associated with greater gender inequalities when men predominate in workplaces. In male-dominated jobs, women's earnings fall $3,700 across observed values of sociability, while men's earnings increase by $2,100 Worker-level activity patterns confirm that while women are more sociable than men in non-work contexts, in male-dominated workplaces, women socialize with their coworkers far less frequently than their male colleagues.

Although the U.S. marriage rate has dropped dramatically over the past few decades, the rate and magnitude of the decline varies across demographic groups. Using data from the National Vital Statistics, Decennial Censuses, and the American Community Survey, this profile charts marriage patterns since 1900 for women aged 15 and older. It also includes more detailed information disaggregated by race/ethnicity and educational attainment. This profile is an update of FP-18-17 and FP-13-13.

Colonial governance in Africa varied considerably in its extent of indirect rule through precolonial institutions. Assessing the developmental consequences of indirect rule, this paper argues that it strengthened populations' bargaining power and increased public service provision in return for taxation of agricultural produce, in particular cash crops. To test this argument, I exploit variation in the indirectness of colonial rule: whereas British indirect rule increased in the centralization of precolonial institutions, the French implemented more uniform direct rule. I furthermore measure public service provision with geo-referenced education outcomes of individuals born and raised under colonial rule and use soils' suitability for cash crop production as an exogenous proxy for real production. Supporting the theoretical claim, the effect of cash crop suitability on primary education increases with precolonial centralization in former British colonies, but not in French ones. Comparisons of education rates in neighboring ethnic groups with different levels of centralization and ethnic groups cut by British-French boundaries reaffirm this result. Contemporary development outcomes show patterns consistent with persistent effects of indirect rule in cash crop producing areas. The findings underscore the joint importance of political institutions and resource endowments in determining local development.-mannm as well as participants of seminars at ETH Zurich and Harvard University for their excellent comments and suggestions.

This book investigates and documents multidimensional poverty in the United States and identifies patterns and relationships that contribute to the development of a more complete understanding of the incidence and intensity of deprivation. The first part introduces multidimensional poverty and provides a rationale for viewing poverty through a lens of multiple deprivations. It discusses how the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) compares to more narrowly-focused, income-based poverty measures and emphasizes its usefulness and applicability for the formulation of related, welfare-enhancing public policies. The second part documents multidimensional poverty incidence, intensity, and corresponding MPI values at the aggregate level of detail, for various demographic cohorts, and across geographic locales. The book then presents results from an empirical analysis that identifies the determinants of multidimensional poverty incidence and of individual deprivation scores. The third part consists of three studies of multidimensional poverty, examining the effect of the Affordable Care Act on multidimensional poverty incidence and intensity, variation in multidimensional poverty across native- and foreign-born residents (and across immigrants’ home countries) of the US, and variation in the respective indicators that contribute to multidimensional poverty across the life cycle. The book closes with two chapters. The first relays the findings of counterfactual exercises where certain deprivations are assumed to have been eliminated. The final chapter summarizes the work, draws inferences and arrives at conclusions, and discusses the corresponding public policy implications.

Today, the Washington region is known for having very diverse suburbs, including Prince George’s County, the largest suburban county with a majority of Black residents in the country. However, 50 years ago, the region’s suburbs were nearly entirely white, while non-white racial and ethnic groups were largely concentrated in the District east of 16th Street NW. Using data from the 1970 through 2010 censuses provided by the IPUMS National Historical GIS project at the University of Minnesota, and 2017 data from the U.S. Census Bureau’s American Community Survey, I created maps of the distribution of residents by race and ethnicity in each census tract within 50 kilometers of the U.S. Capitol.

Birth rates in the U.S. have steadily declined since the Great Recession. The Total Fertility Rate (TFR), which estimates the average number of births women will have if they experience current birth rates throughout their childbearing years, is at a record low of 1.73 births per woman (Martin, Hamilton, Osterman, & Driscoll, 2019). However, the TFR does not reflect changes in birth timing, and delayed fertility is on the rise. While birth rates have fallen at younger ages, they have risen for women 35 and older. As such, looking at actual completed fertility provides another way of examining women’s fertility. In this profile, we use data from the Current Population Survey’s (CPS) biennial June Fertility Supplement for the years 1980 through 2018 to analyze completed fertility for women aged 40-44. We present trends in the distribution of children ever born (one, two, three, or four or more) for women aged 40-44 for the overall population and by race-ethnicity and education. A companion profile (FP-20-03) focuses on trends in children ever born by union status, with information on differentials in age at first birth in 2018 discussed in FP-20-05.

Since the mid-19th century, the rise of industrial agriculture and growing population has significantly altered nutrient cycling. These changes are from multiple sources, such as chemical fertilizers, livestock waste, and human waste. Excess nutrients have led to a suite of water quality problems that damage human and animal health, ecology, and economics. In this thesis, I begin to quantify the "Nutrient Landscape", a term I use to refer to the set of processes and properties that drive cycling of nitrogen and phosphorus throughout our modern environment.To understand the "Nutrient Landscape", I first develop algorithms utilizing broadly available data to estimate nutrient inputs from seven distinct sources across the U.S. portion of the Laurentian Great Lakes Basin at 30 meter resolution. Chapter I's mapping effort, referred to as the Spatially Explicit Nutrient Source Estimate map (SENSEmap), provides new information for management and modeling, as well as a classification system to categorize watersheds based on their nutrient source composition. Second, I examine the groundwater component of the "Nutrient Landscape" by exploring a dataset of over 300,000 nitrate samples from drinking water wells using Classification and Regression Tree (CART) analysis to determine drivers of elevated concentration. This analysis revealed high nitrate concentrations result from a combination of hazardous land use and vulnerable geology. The data products and findings in this thesis provide a quantitative framework for informing management strategies and driving the next generation of nutrient modeling.

We study state and federal health insurance coverage mandates for young adults. Despite consistent findings that the Affordable Care Act's (ACA) federal mandate was effective, research has disagreed on whether preexisting, state-level mandates were successful in increasing coverage. We reconsider the issue with a new analytical perspective and newly available accurate data on state mandates. We show that the impact of the state mandates was substantive and concentrated among young adults between ages 19 and 23. Our estimates indicate that dependent coverage rose by 3.9 percentage points and overall coverage rose by 3.3 percentage points. Crowd-out of coverage through young adults’ own jobs was negligible. For those above 23, we find little evidence of changes in coverage. We incorporate these insights into analysis of the ACA's mandate, showing its effects were focused among those who were not eligible for state mandates, or were eligible but older than 23. Our results suggest that eligibility restrictions played important roles in limiting the scope of the state mandates, but they can be practical and effective tools for policymakers looking to ensure or expand coverage for young adults in the face of uncertainty about the ACA.

racism is a sociological construct and sociopolitical theory that emerged during the late 1960s and has been actively discussed in academic literature for more than a half-century. Institutional racism holds that mainstream disapproval of individual acts of bigotry belies a farreaching , stable, and insidious system of White racial preference that is interwoven into the normal practices and policies of organizations and institutions (Phillips, 2010). As a system of social control, institutional racism is a guiding principle that helps theorists across disciplines examine the systemic practices and policies that result in wealth, employment, housing, criminal justice, and political power disparities. Racially biased systems can supplant individual motivations and lead nonracist people to unwittingly contribute to racist outcomes in criminal justice, education, and health systems. Racially biased systems can have a diverse workforce, but still have racial preferences for White people. For instance, an original analysis of the American Community Survey (ACS) of the U.S. Census using the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS) (Ruggles et al., 2017) estimates that approximately 136,000 police officers in the United States are Black. Collectively, about 30,000 Black police officers serve the five metropolitan areas with the largest number of Black people---New York, Chicago, Washington, DC, Atlanta, and Miami. In all of these areas, according to ACS estimates, the percentage of Black police officers is consistent with the percentage of Black people in the respective populations. Further analysis of IPUMS data reveal the social work profession has an overrepresentation of Black professionals. Black social workers comprise most of the profession in five states and the District of Columbia, including Mississippi, Louisiana, Georgia, Maryland, and Delaware. However, institutional racism precludes Black social workers collectively from pushing social justice-oriented, culturally responsive social work at the institutional practice and policy level. According to Lavoie (2014), “social workers committed to critical, anti-racist practice are often frustrated in their attempts to bring about institutional change that addresses racism” (p. 1). Black people are more likely to choose helping professions generally and education specifically, especially among Black men. According to the ACS, social worker is the 7th most common occupation among Black men with at least a bachelor’s degree. For White men, it is 56th. Primary school teacher is the No. 1 profession of college-educated Black men and No. 3 for White men. Secondary school teacher is No. 5 for Black men and No. 14 for White men. Educational administrator is No. 6 for Black men and No. 20 for White men, and counselor is No. 7 for Black men and No. 40 for White men (Toldson, 2019). Theorizing about institutional racism through the social and behavioral sciences has done little to ameliorate long-standing discriminatory practices. Furthermore, the narrow scope of interventions, including diversifying hiring and cultural sensitivity trainings, are inadequate strategies for inspiring systemwide change. Unconscious and implicit bias, for instance, are popular investigative inquiries for understanding racial discrimination. However, researchers have criticized implicit bias research for insinuating that racism is perpetuated through guileless and unintentional motivations, while not addressing the established systems that undermine the progress of racial minorities (Tate & Page, 2018). Tate and Page (2018) indicate that “biases are usually influenced by background, cultural environment, and experiences” (p. 141). Thus, a comprehensive investigation of the system that cultivates racist behavior might be more important than studying the psychological underpinnings of individual biased acts. In the past, the National Science Foundation’s (NSF) investment in ‘institutional racism’ has been low. An advanced keyword search of active and expired NSF awards on the NSF website was 2 ©The Journal of Negro Education, 2020, No. 89, No 1 recently performed, and for the keyword, ‘implicit bias,’ 65 active and past awards, totaling more than $48 million were found. However, some of the larger awards simply mentioned implicit bias in their best practice strategies for recruiting participants. To the contrary, a keyword search for the keyword ‘critical race theory...

Multidimensional data analysis has attracted a lot of research efforts during past years. One of the aspects that has been addressed so far is that to allow users to analyze their data from different perspectives, each of which corresponds to a selected subset of dimensions. To optimize these analysis queries, precomputation, and materialization, are among most studied solutions. In the context of skyline analysis, the skycube structure has been proposed as an optimization structure to allow users to ask for the non dominated records with respect to every selected dimensions set. More precisely, given a set of dimensions D = {D1, . . . , Dd} and a relation T (id, D), the Skycube of T is the set of all skylines obtained by considering each of the subsets of D (subspaces). To make the Skycube practically useful, two lines of research have been pursued so far: the first one aims to propose efficient algorithms for computing it. Note that the number of these skylines is exponential w.r.t. |D|. Hence, both execution time and storage space make these solutions struggling with even moderately large datasets, say |D| larger than 10 and the number of tuples greater than 106 . This motivated the second line of researches which propose Skycube summarization techniques to reduce both time and space consumption. Both lines of research, store the whole or a summary of the following information: ‘‘for every tuple t, keep track of the dimensions subsets X (subspaces) where t belongs to the respective skyline". In this paper, we consider the complementary statement, i.e., ‘‘for every tuple t, we store a compact data structure encoding the subspaces X with respect to which, t is dominated". This is what we call the negative skycube. Despite the apparent equivalence between the two statements (dominated vs not dominated), our analysis and extensive experiments show that these two points of view do not lead to the same behavior of the related algorithms. More specifically, our proposal shows that: (i) the negative summary can be obtained much faster than state of the art techniques for positive summaries, (ii) in general, it consumes less memory space, (iii) skyline queries evaluation using this summary is much faster, (iv) the positive Skycube can be obtained more rapidly than state of the art algorithms especially designed for this purpose, and (v) it is highly effective with respect to insertions and deletions.

In November, I found that the spatial distribution of wealth in the D.C. area has remained relatively constant over the past 40 years. The spatial distribution of education levels among adults over the past 50 years has been similar to the distribution of wealth, but there have been some notable changes over the past half-century. Using data from the 1970 through 2010 Censuses provided by the IPUMS National Historical GIS project at the University of Minnesota and 2017 data from the US Census Bureau’s American Community Survey, I created maps of the distribution of adults ages 25 and up with each census tract within 50 kilometers of the US Capitol. Every ten adults at a given education level—no high school diploma, high school graduates without a college degree, and college graduates with at least a bachelor’s degree—are represented with a color-coded dot randomly located within the census tract where they reside.

In the U.S., women are entering motherhood at older ages, with the age at first birth rising from a mean of 21.4 in 1970 to 26.8 in 2017 (FP-18-25). Women who have first births at younger ages differ on a range of characteristics compared to women who become mothers at later ages, and maternal age is linked to children’s well-being (Gibson-Davis & Rackin, 2014; Brown, Stykes, & Manning, 2016; Rackin & Gibson-Davis, 2018). This profile uses the Current Population Survey’s 2018 June Fertility Supplement to identify mothers who had a first birth between 2015 and 2018. Education level, race/ethnicity, and union status of mothers are compared across three groups classified by age at first birth: younger mothers (less than 24 years old), mid-range age mothers (24 to 29 years old), and older mothers (30 years or older). Additional profiles using the June Fertility Supplement analyze trends in completed family size among women aged 40-44 by education and race/ethnicity (FP-20-04) and by union status (FP-20-03).

What is financial health? It is the ability to control your short-term finances and make choices to enjoy your life, such as supporting a family member or going back to school. A financially healthy individual can also absorb financial setbacks and meet their financial goals (Consumer Financial Protection Bureau [CFPB], 2015). Financial stability, however, comes first: in the short term, this means having money left over at the end of the month, manageable debt, a small pot of savings, and a trusted network to help bridge financial gaps (Siwicki, 2019). For many low- and moderate- income Detroiters, the necessary ingredients for financial health and financial stability are out of reach. Indeed, just over half of Detroit residents are either financially insecure (32%) or in financial trouble (24%) (DMACS, 2019). Due to low and volatile incomes and disproportionately high costs, tens of thousands of Detroit households cannot maintain consistently positive cash flow, which makes it challenging to build . . .

Texas is one of twelve states that has chosen not to expand Medicaid, despite having the largest number of uninsured residents in the country. Ninety percent matching financing from the federal government means the state is missing out on not only any benefits to individuals but fiscal benefits to local economies. In this brief, we summarize research on fiscal impacts of Medicaid expansion and the number of Texans who would be eligible for expansion, as well as how much new federal annual spending would be expected if those Texans enrolled in Medicaid.

This dissertation explores the responses of different dimensions of health to temperature changes in tropical developing countries in three separate essays. The first studies the relationship between temperature and mortality in Colombia. I show that even at narrow temperature ranges, which are characteristic of the tropics, anomalously hot or cold days increase mortality. Unlike temperate locations, I find that deaths attributed to infectious diseases and respiratory illnesses drive this relationship in the hot part of the distribution, affecting children aged 0-5 primarily. These findings uncover new factors and populations at risk after the occurrence of hot temperature shocks. I calculate that the average person who dies after a hot temperature shock loses approximately 30 years of life. The second essay focuses on the relationship between temperature and health services usage in Colombia. I find that hospitalization rates monotonically increase with temperature. Infectious diseases and maternal-related care mainly explain these results, suggesting that children, fetus in-utero, and women could be significantly affected by changes in temperature. Assuming temperatures will continue to rise as they did in sample and no further adaptation measures are undertaken, my estimates imply 1,161.3 additional hospitalizations per 100,000 inhabitants per year (33.6\% of the average annual rate of 3458.87). These findings suggest that changes in temperature could impose a burden on the health system, but alternatively it could be an important mediating factor between climate change and mortality. In the last essay, my collaborators and I ask if temperature shocks differentially affect children's health by gender in sub-Saharan Africa. We find that hot temperature shocks decrease anthropometric measures for children under five, with girls seeming to bear much of the effect after exposure to extreme hot days.

Little evidence exists on the effect of the Affordable Care Act (ACA) on criminal behavior, a gap in the literature that this paper seeks to address. Using a simple model, we argue we should anticipate a decrease in time devoted to criminal activities in response to the expansion, because the availability of the ACA Medicaid coverage raises the opportunity cost of crime. This prediction is particularly relevant for the ACA expansion because it primarily affects childless adults, a population likely to contain individuals who engage in criminal behavior. We validate this forecast empirically using a difference-in-differences framework, estimating the expansion's effects on panel datasets of state- and county-level crime rates. Our estimates suggest that the ACA Medicaid expansion was negatively associated with burglary, vehicle theft, homicide, robbery, and assault. These crime-reduction spillover effects represent an important offset to the government's cost burden for the ACA Medicaid expansion.

Using confidential establishment-level data from the U.S. Census Bureau, this paper studies the effects of ACA Medicaid expansion on corporate behavior in the U.S. manufacturing sector. We find that Medicaid expansion leads to a significant decrease in capital investment and productivity at the plant level. However, the effect of Medicaid expansion on plant-level employment or labor compensation is economically small. We find that there are no differential pre-treatment trends in the outcomes across plants in states that expanded and did not expand Medicaid.

Maintaining a happy marriage takes a great deal of work, from managing work-life balance to navigating financial woes and everything in between. Studies have shown that people with stable, higher-paying jobs tend to experience lower divorce rates than those who don’t earn as much money. Less than one-third of married people in the middle and upper classes filed for divorce while more than one-third of those in the working class had sought divorces, according to a study conducted by the Institute for Family Studies. The IFS also sourced information from a Bloomberg report indicating 70% of people who consider themselves upper class enjoy lasting marriages compared with just 53% of those who describe themselves as lower class.

While much is known regarding important outcomes of Family-Supportive Supervisor Behaviors (FSSB), little research exists regarding possible antecedents. The present study applies a gender lens to establishing antecedents of FSSB using Social Role Theory (Eagly & Karau, 2002) and Social Identity Theory (Tajfel, 1970). FSSB is a gendered behavior occurring in gendered, ambiguous organizational contexts enabling gender biases to affect supervisor behavior. Thus, I argue FSSB should be predicted from gender variables (gender role attitudes of the supervisor, gender match in the supervisory dyad, and subordinate’s occupational gender type) in the supervisory relationship. An electronic survey was administered to an adult sample of full-time U.S. workers (n =103 matched supervisors and subordinates) in a variety of occupations. Path analysis was employed as the method to test hypotheses. Results showed supervisor gender role attitudes predicted FSSB, as well as interactions of supervisor gender role attitudes with subordinate gender and occupational gender-type of subordinate. Findings suggest gender context of the work environment may override individual gender-role attitudes of supervisors when it comes to FSSB, and that men may experience lower FSSB than women in mixed-gender and male-dominated occupations. Implications for researchers and practitioners are discussed and include the importance of exploring possible structural changes in organizations to promote gender equality in FSSB.

Since 1980, economic growth in the U.S. has been fastest in its largest cities. We show that a group of skill- and information-intensive service industries are responsible for all of this new urban bias in recent growth. We then propose a simple explanation centered around the interaction of three factors: the disproportionate reliance of these services on information and communication technology (ICT), the precipitous price decline for ICT capital since 1980, and the preexisting comparative advantage of cities in skilled services. Quantitatively, our mechanism accounts for most of the urban biased growth of the U.S. economy in recent decades.