Uses the most important primary source of the past century for economic and social historians, the public use samples of the manuscript census, to devise empirical measurements of the Marxist idea of class. Marxist definitions of class have two elements. Class is relational, that is, the patterns of life and social relations take place among people, not against an abstract index of stratification. In addition, class is understood to take place within the sphere of production and includes how people relate to the ownership of the means of production. Although class and its understanding is central to the Marxist analysis of capitalism, there have been very few efforts by Marxist social scientists to attempt precise measurement of their organizing idea. The author analyzed the public use samples from 1910 and 1940 through 1980 with these Marxist definitions in mind. The results show that it is possible to specify with accuracy the changing fortunes of the American bourgeoisie, petite bourgeoisie, and proletariat. Three findings stand out for 20th-century American class relations. First, the percentage of the that is proletarian has been quite consistent, averaging about 70% from 1910 through 1970, and dropping to 61% in 1980. Second, the major change in class membership has been the rise of a professional managerial class, which as of 1980 constituted 28% of the population. Third, the income gap between the proletarians and bourgeoisie increased considerably after World War II and up through 1980, indeed well before the more recent additional changes in income inequality.

Objective: This study explores how women's increased educational advantage is associated with gender (in)equality in housework across four different European cultural and institutional contexts. Background: The rising gender gap in educational attainment-favoring women-across rich nations increased educationally hypogamous couples (where her attainment is greater than his). Several theories suggest this might equalize the division of housework by women's relative and absolute level of educational attainment. examine the relationship between women's absolute and relative educational attainment and housework. Results: Women's (and men's) own educational attainment, rather than hypogamy, is strongly associated with lower time spent on housework by women and higher by men, primarily in contexts with more traditional gender roles where housework is more unequally distributed, like in Italy and France in the 2010s, and all examined countries in the 1980s. Conclusion: Results are most consistent with a diffusion perspective, but also suggest the limitations of wom-en's rising educational attainment alone in spurring greater equality in housework.

The Company’s database covers a very particular population of jobs and firms – managers and business professionals at modern business enterprises. It is not well suited for studying typical firms or their workers in developing countries because those firms do not engage the Company’s services and so do not appear in the Company’s database. We assemble nationally representative data sets to study employment patterns and compensation among such firms for context. We start by comparing the employment patterns in terms of occupations. We map Company job titles to 1-digit ISCO-08 occupations. We draw on representative data from the ILOSTAT database produced by the International Labour Organization. They tabulate a number of results from household surveys, labor force surveys, and censuses for countries around the world. The most useful tabulation for our purposes is the number of workers employed by ISCO-08 2-digit occupation category.1 We aggregate to the 1-digit level.