The impact on families and society of increasing numbers of two-earner couples continues to receive significant attention among policymakers. However, model complexities and lack of data have resulted in a paucity of empirical analyses of family labor supply trends. This paper uses pseudo-panel data constructed from the U.S. Census from 1940-1990 to examine the life-cycle labor force participation of white, married couples. Descriptive analysis shows significantly different patterns across five levels of education, especially for generations born after 1930. Standard individual labor supply equations for married men and women are estimated separately and as a simultaneous, two-equation system. This structure accommodates a model of family labor supply as the Pareto-efficient outcome of bargaining between spouses. Consistent with the bargaining model, the participation decision of the husband and the wife is found to have a significant and positive impact on the participation decision of their spouse. The positive relationship may also suggest assortative mating with regard to labor force participation preferences. The findings of negative own wage elasticity and positive income elasticity support the predictions of the standard labor-leisure model.Overall, the results suggest a strong secular increase in married female labor force participation. While the traditional labor supply model provides a partial explanation for this increase, the increase can not be fully explained as a simple trend across generations, or as changes across generations in the coefficients of the traditional labor supply specification. This paper's analysis forms a foundation for traditional research extensions such as analysis of annual hours and analysis of black family labor supply patterns. Additionally, this paper provides a framework for analyzing more speculative causes of the observed couple labor supply patterns such as increased exposure to advertising and increased consumer debt.

Most of previous studies on mining association rules are single dimensional ones and are at single concept level. However, the more useful or interesting associa- tion rules can be found with the multi-levels using data cube, which is one of the popular structures in OLAP. A new algorithm, is proposed for mining multi-level association rules using data cubes. This algorithm is called as mL-layered-search and its performance is also studied. MoreoVer, two thresholds, the minimum support and minimum confidence thresholds, are necessary to mine association rules in most previous studies. But it is very difficult for users to set these two thresholds to obtain the result they required. If these thresholds are set too small, too many rules will be mined. It is difficult to select the information. If these thresholds are set too large, there may not be any result. Users would not have much idea about how large the thresholds should be. Here we study an approach where the user can set a threshold on the amount of results instead of the thresholds. Since the most step in the mining of association rules is the discovery of large itemsets, and Most of previous studies on mining association rules are single dimensional ones and are at single concept level. However, the more useful or interesting associa- tion rules can be found with the multi-levels using data cube, which is one of the popular structures in OLAP. A new algorithm, is proposed for mining multi-level association rules using data cubes. This algorithm is called as mL-layered-search and its performance is also studied. MoreoVer, two thresholds, the minimum support and minimum confidence thresholds, are necessary to mine association rules in most previous studies. But it is very difficult for users to set these two thresholds to obtain the result they required. If these thresholds are set too small, too many rules will be mined. It is difficult to select the information. If these thresholds are set too large, there may not be any result. Users would not have much idea about how large the thresholds should be. Here we study an approach where the user can set a threshold on the amount of results instead of the thresholds. Since the most step in the mining of association rules is the discovery of large itemsets, and Most of previous studies on mining association rules are single dimensional ones and are at single concept level. However, the more useful or interesting associa- tion rules can be found with the multi-levels using data cube, which is one of the popular structures in OLAP. A new algorithm, is proposed for mining multi-level association rules using data cubes. This algorithm is called as mL-layered-search and its performance is also studied. MoreoVer, two thresholds, the minimum support and minimum confidence thresholds, are necessary to mine association rules in most previous studies. But it is very difficult for users to set these two thresholds to obtain the result they required. If these thresholds are set too small, too many rules will be mined. It is difficult to select the information. If these thresholds are set too large, there may not be any result. Users would not have much idea about how large the thresholds should be. Here we study an approach where the user can set a threshold on the amount of results instead of the thresholds. Since the most step in the mining of association rules is the discovery of large itemsets, and Most of previous studies on mining association rules are single dimensional ones and are at single concept level. However, the more useful or interesting associa- tion rules can be found with the multi-levels using data cube, which is one of the popular structures in OLAP. A new algorithm, is proposed for mining multi-level association rules using data cubes. This algorithm is called as mL-layered-search and its performance is also studied. MoreoVer, two thresholds, the minimum support and minimum confidence thresholds, are necessary to mine association rules in most previous studies. But it is very difficult for users to set these two thresholds to obtain the result they required. If these thresholds are set too small, too many rules will be mined. It is difficult to select the information. If these thresholds are set too large, there may not be any result. Users would not have much idea about how large the thresholds should be. Here we study an approach where the user can set a threshold on the amount of results instead of the thresholds. Since the most step in the mining of association rules is the discovery of large itemsets, and other problems such as mining correlations or subspace clustering also depend on this step, mining itemsets is an interesting problem. We assume users would specify N, the number of itemsets to be mined and we shall return the N itemsets with the greatest supports. Two new algorithms, which are Itemset-Loop and Itemset-iLoop, are proposed to mine a set of interesting itemsets how many the users required. They find A^itemsets and use the iterative loop-back approach for avoiding any missing itemsets with enough support. The results are the N-most interesting itemset.

This paper traces the diffusion of fair employment legislation at the state level and evaluates the relative importance of various demographic, political, and economic factors in the promotion (or at least the acceptance) of the principle of government-enforced anti-discrimination policy. The empirics indicate that non-southern states with higher proportions of union members, Jews, and Catholics tended to adopt fair employment legislation sooner than other states. There is weaker evidence that after controlling for other characteristics, the likelihood of passage was lower in states dominated by the Republican Party and that there were spillover or contagion effects across states. The proportion of the population that was black does not appear to have shortened the time to adoption.

How does the quality of education received by children affect their performance when they enter the labor market? This paper is an attempt to answer this question for new entrants to the labor market over a period from 1970 to the mid 1990s. In so doing we try to pull together some strands in the literature on both education and the labor market. We also hope to shed light on some of the policy concerns lurking in the background of the relevant literature. Most previous studies of the effect of school quality on the labor market, beginning with Card and Krueger (1992), measure quality with inputs (school expenditures, teacher-pupil ratios). We focus instead on an output measure - test scores. Thus our work is also related to the literature on 'education production functions,' which tries to estimate a link between education inputs and outputs. Both the school inputs-labor market and the education production literature are unsettled.2 But they also stand in uncomfortable juxtaposition. According to Eric Hanushek (1996) the central tendency of hundreds of education production function studies is that there is no reliable connection between school inputs and outputs. According to Card and Krueger (1996) there is usually a positive relation between school inputs and earnings.

A combination of changing migration patterns and US immigration restrictions acted to shift the male-female balance in many ethnic groups in the early 20th Century. I use this variation to study the consequences of changing sex ratios for the children of immigrants. Immigrant sex ratios affected the second generation for a number of reasons, most importantly because immigrants and their children typically married in the same ethnic group. The results suggest that higher sex ratios, defined as the number of men per woman, had a large positive impact on the liklihood of female marriage. More surprisingly, second-generation male marriage rates were also an increasing function of immigrant sex ratios. The results also suggest that higher sex ratios raised male earnings and the incomes of parents with young children. The interpretation of these findings is complicated by changes in extended family structure associated with changing sex ratios. On balance, however, the results are consistent with theories were higher sex ratios increase male competition for women in the marriage market.

Will the extension of trade liberalisation and increases in foreign direct investment accompanying the process of regional integration and globalisation contribute over the long-term to a greater control over migration flows? To what extent can an acceleration in economic convergence and the implementation of measures facilitating the exchange of highly skilled labour be expected to promote sustainable development in the countries of high emigration potential? This publication seeks to give an answer to these questions. It highlights the contrasts which characterise the demographic and economic situations in Central and Eastern Europe, in the Mediterranean Basin, in North America and in Asia. It identifies the conditions which would favour greater regional integration and reduce over the long-term the incentives to emigrate: the implementation of public sector reforms; the development of the socio-economic infrastructure; the implementation of measures to improve the functioning of financial systems, to attract foreign direct investment and to promote technology transfer and innovation diffusion. Finally, it points to the geopolitical aspects of regional integration and the important role that the greater enhancement of human resources should play in future migration policies.

Objective: To determine women's attitudes to and knowledge of both false positive mammography results and the detection of ductal carcinoma in situ after screening mammography.Design: Cross sectional survey.Setting United States.Participants: 479 women aged 18-97 years who did not report a history of breast cancer.Main outcome: measures Attitudes to and knowledge of false positive results and the detection of ductal carcinoma in situ after screening mammography.Results: Women were aware that false positive results do occur. Their median estimate of the false positive rate for 10 years of annual screening was 20% (25th percentile estimate, 10%; 75th percentile estimate, 45%). The women were highly tolerant of false positives: 63% thought that 500 or more false positives per life saved was reasonable and 37% would tolerate 10 000 or more. Women who had had a false positive result (n=76) expressed the same high tolerance: 39% would tolerate 10 000 or more false positives. 62% of women did not want to take false positive results into account when deciding about screening. Only 8% of women thought that mammography could harm a woman without breast cancer, and 94% doubted the possibility of non-progressive breast cancers. Few had heard about ductal carcinoma in situ, a cancer that may not progress, but when informed, 60% of women wanted to take into account the possibility of it being detected when deciding about screening.Conclusions: Women are aware of false positives and seem to view them as an acceptable consequence of screening mammography. In contrast, most women are unaware that screening can detect cancers that may never progress but feel that such information would be relevant Education should perhaps focus less on false positives and more on the less familiar outcome of detection of ductal carcinoma in situ.

The percentage of elderly widows living alone rose from 18% in 1940 to 62% in 1990, while the percentage living with adult children declined from 59% to 20%. This study finds that income growth, particularly increased Social Security benefits, was the single most important determinant of living arrangements, accounting for nearly one-half of the increase in independent living. Unlike researchers in earlier studies, we find no evidence that the effect of income became stronger over the period. Changes in age, race, immigrant status, schooling, and completed fertility explain a relatively small share of the changes in living arrangements

Many economists and policymakers believe that education creates positive externalities. Indeed, average schooling in U.S. states is highly correlated with state wage levels, even after controlling for the direct effect of schooling on individual wages. We use variation in child labor laws and compulsory attendance laws over time and across states to investigate whether this relationship is causal. Our results show external returns to education around 1% and not significantly different from zero.

More than 17 percent of households in American central cities live in poverty; in American suburbs, just 7.4 percent of households live in poverty. The income elasticity of demand for land is too low for urban poverty to be the result of wealthy individuals' wanting to live where land is cheap (the traditional urban economics explanation of urban poverty). Instead, the urbanization of poverty appears to be the result of better access to public transportation in central cities, and central city governments favoring the poor (relative to suburban governments).

Many economists and policymakers believe that education creates positive externalities. Indeed, average schooling in U.S. states is highly correlated with state wage levels, even after controlling for the direct effect of schooling on individual wages. We use variation in child labor laws and compulsory attendance laws over time and across states to investigate whether this relationship is causal. Our results show external returns to education around 1% and not significantly different from zero.

With the upcoming of globalization processes and new technologies economic competition between different areas has intensified. High competition exists both between focal peripheral areas and global city centers as well as within the participating city systems of global actions. As a global city of highest or-der, New Pork plays an important role in these processes. But New Pork did not have this position right away. It had to acquire its power through a continuous process of using its natural advantages, mastering competition with other cities and coping with its internal problems - a struggle which lasted for the last two centuries and still continues. The importance of New York's harbor as a trade center, its pole position in gaining new knowledge through modern telecommunications, an innovative press, the location of industry, headquarters and celebrities, together with an endless flow of new immigrants of all kinds of cultural and social backgrounds, have contributed to making New York City the city of knowledge and information, money and commerce, advertising and media, arts and culture - in spite of some political and fiscal shortages and deficiencies in its infrastructure. As in the past, effects of self-reinforcement and an openness to innovation are likely to ensure that New Yolk will keep this position in the 21(st) century as well.