This paper compares earnings disparities between persons with disabilities and able-bodied persons in the United States and in China, two countries with widely differing public policies regarding employment of persons with disabilities. In doing so, the paper provides readers with a unique comparative perspective on both the nature of disability policies in China and the United States and on the impacts of these policies. Data from the China Household Income Project Survey (CHIPs) and the US Current Population Survey (CPS) are used to estimate earnings equations in China and the US to test the hypothesis that the adverse impacts of disability on earnings differ between the two countries. The disability rates in the two samples are comparable as are the percentage differences in earnings between persons with disabilities and able-bodied persons. However, the estimated impacts of disability on wage and salary incomes are larger in the United States, where disability policy is essentially an anti-discrimination policy than they are in China, where disability policy includes an affirmative action requirement mandating that employers hire a quota of employees with disabilities against a threat of fines and penalties. The analysis has broad implications for understanding how and why anti-discrimination policies may not be enough to narrow earnings gaps between persons with disabilities and the able-bodied.

Major demographic processes (fertility, mortality and migration) are both causes and consequences of future and previous processes. Demographers in border locations have special methodological challenges and usually face more rapidly changing dynamics than other locations. Migration is a process most difficult to both measure and understand; unlike birth and death, it does not happen to everyone, but is selective. Age, education, health, wealth, occupation, gender and family composition all contribute to making a person more or less likely to move from one place to another or remain where they are, as are a host of other factors. This study attempts to sort out some of these factors, using primarily Census data from 1990 and 2000. We began with the local concern that El Paso's persistently low indices of education and income result from an outflow of the more educated segments of the community. However, our findings suggest that the relationship between migration and education is not linear. Moreover, other variables such as language, birthplace, gender and ethnicity appear to be as or more important in predicting whether a person will stay or leave than educational attainment. The characteristics of new arrivals also affect the composition of a population at the aggregate level. As the population of Hispanics disperse throughout the country, a process rapidly underway as evidenced by the 2000 Census, our findings may have implications for many other communities. A more complete understanding of the causes and consequences of migration will require a combination of both qualitative and quantitative analysis.

Generalized rule discovery is a rule discovery framework that subsumes association rule discovery and the type of search employed to find individual rules in classification rule discovery. This new rule discovery framework escapes the limitations of the support-confidence framework inherent in association rule discovery. This empowers data miners to identify the types of rules that they wish to discover and develop efficient algorithms for discovering those rules. This paper presents a scalable algorithm applicable to a wide range of generalized rule discovery task and demonstrates its efficiency.

This article has three goals. First, it explores the effects of changes in census definitions and concepts on the measurement of living arrangements. As part of this analysis, the authors develop new estimates of the number of households and group quarters in each census year since 1850. Second, they evaluate the existing aggregate statistical series on family and household composition, with particular attention to problems in the measurement of subfamilies. Finally, they describe data and methods for developing a consistent set of statistics for the period since 1850 and offer recommendations for the coherent measurement of family and household composition.

The information presented in this fact sheet is intended to stimulate dialogue on the NFCSP and to encourage collaborative efforts in meeting the needs of all grandparent and other relative caregivers and the children in their care. This fact sheet will emphasize the need to expand the system of services to all ages of relative caregivers to address the unique challenges of caregivers under age 60. Furthermore, this fact sheet will highlight successful program models for all relative caregivers, including those under age 60.

If you want to stay married, three of the most ominous words you'll ever hear are "It's a girl." All over the world, boys hold marriages together, and girls break them up.

We document that the slowdown in the growth of the immigrant population in the United States since 2000 is the largest observed using Census data since 1870. Non-parametric tests reveal that the sharp decline is similar in magnitude to changes in migration growth rates that followed the two major historical regime changes in U.S. immigration policy. Migration rates are slowing across nearly all age, sex, educational and country of origin categories that we examine. We find that the stock of adult migrants under age 30 is smaller in 2015 than in 2000, a potential precursor to a declining overall stock, as was seen around the introduction of the national quotas regime in 1920. Heterogenous changes have led to slower declines for men than women, and an increase in the relative scarcity of low-skilled labor. Approximately half of the overall decline is due to falling Mexican immigration.

City life in the nineteenth and early twentieth century was dirty and dangerous (Melosi 2000). The water and milk supply of cities was contaminated with bacteria causing typhoid fever, dysentery, and diarrhea. Cities did not remove sewage and their streets were filled with garbage and carrion. The influx of migrants from abroad and from rural areas crowding into dank and dark urban tenements provided new foci of infection and new victims, and the rapid transmission of disease from host to host increased its virulence. Among infants the excess urban mortality was 88 percent in 1890 and 48 percent in 1900 (Haines forthcoming) and nowhere was the urban mortality penalty as large as in the poor areas of town where crowding was greater and where parents could not afford to buy clean water and milk (Rochester 1923). City life left those who survived to age 60 permanently scarred, shortening their lives at older ages even controlling for later residential moves (Costa 2003; Costa and Lahey 2003). But, by 1940, the urban mortality penalty had disappeared and life in a city was in many ways healthier tha n life in the countryside (Haines forthcoming). Between 1902 and 1929, the urban waterborne death rate had fallen by 88% (Cain and Rotella 2001)...

Using 5% Public-Use Microdata Samples (PUMS) for 1990, this paper examines the extent of racial variation in females commuting times in the Atlanta metropolitan area in the context of the spatial mismatch hypothesis. Much past research has portrayed, based on old industrial cities, racial variation of males commuting times, but the study of racial variation in female commuting time, especially based on the post-industrial city, remains underexamined. This is one of the very few studies of racial variations in females commuting times based on a post-industrial city. To ensure compatible comparison between Blacks and Whites, the analysis controls all the matched characteristics of these two groups such as: marital status, household types, parental status, occupation status, location of residence and workplaces, and mode of transportation. This study confirms the results of many past studies, that regardless of the comparable socioeconomic status of Blacks and Whites, Black females continue to face significant spatial barriers, especially in the service economy, when commuting within central cities, time that is therefore unavailable for other purposes. Unlike other studies, this research finds, regardless of occupational status, shorter reverse commuting by central city Black females (except for the professional workers). The situation with Blacks living and working in the suburbs differs slightly, with some evidence of an explicit spatial mismatch reflected by their longer commuting times.

We present the first nationwide value of life estimates for the United States at more than one point in time. Our estimates are for every ten years between 1940 and 1980, a period when declines in fatal accident rates were historically unprecedented. Our estimated elasticity of value of life with respect to per capita GNP is 1.5 to 1.7. We illustrate the importance of rising value of life for policy evaluation by examining the benefits of improved longevity since 1900. Our estimated elasticity implies that the current marginal increase in longevity is more valuable than the large increase in the first half of the twentieth century.

What motivated men to risk death in the most horrific war in U.S. history when pay was low and irregular and military punishment strategies were weak? In such a situation creating group loyalty by promoting social capital is of paramount importance and in the Civil War was the cement of both armies. We find that individual and company socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, ideology, and morale were important predictors of group loyalty in the Union Army. Company characteristics were more important than ideology or morale. Soldiers in companies that were more homogeneous in ethnicity, occupation, and age were less likely to shirk.

We document the price dynamics of nonmarket goods by estimating repeat cross-sectional hedonic regressions. We focus on two important and measurable nonmarket goods: job fatality risk and climate. In both cases we find that both price and quantity have been rising. This evidence is consistent with rising valuation. We use our estimates of job-risk compensating differentials to construct new evidence on long-run trends in value of life. Accounting for price changes affects how we view the retrospective and prospective benefits of medical innovations. A rising value of life implies that marginal improvements in safety and in longevity are becoming more valuable. We report evidence that the price of living in a temperate winter and summer climate has significantly increased over time.

We evaluate trends in social capital since 1952 and assess explanations for the observed declines. We examine both social capital centered in the community and in the home and argue that the decline in social capital has been over-stated. Controlling for education, there have been small declines in the probability of volunteering, larger declines in group membership, and still larger declines in the probability of entertaining since the 1970s. There have been no declines in the probability of spending frequent evenings with friends or relatives, but there have been decreases in daily visits with friends or relatives. Rising community heterogeneity (particularly income inequality) explains the fall in social capital produced outside the home whereas the rise in women's labor force participation rates explains the decline in social capital produced within the home.

We present new evidence on the effects of disability discrimination laws based on variation induced by state-level antidiscrimination measures passed prior to the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). The evidence expands upon other research that focuses solely on the impact of the ADA by using a "quasi-experimental" framework that generates treatment and comparison groups. We find that disability discrimination laws are associated with lower relative earnings of the disabled, with slightly lower disabled relative labor force participation rates, but are not associated with lower relative employment rates for the disabled once we control for preexisting employment trends among the disabled.

Equalizing spending on the education of children from rich and poor families is one of the most popular methods of redistribution in the world. It is undoubtedly the method onwhich the U.S. primarily relies, given the relatively low level of social benefits in America. Redistributing through education is potentially very efficient compared toother methods of redistribution. This is because children from poor families are likely to underinvest in education, judging not only by social returns but even by private returns. Also, if implemented well, redistribution through education poses few incentive problems (parents would not readily make themselves poorer to obtain more school aid).In short, redistribution through education could not only suppress income inequality, but could potentially raise growth. Currently, support for these hypotheses is based solely on calibration exercises. In this paper, I directly test whether U.S. states that practiced more redistribution through education ended up producing adults whose incomes were less unequal and faster growing. I exploit substantial within-state variation in states' school finance policies. Owing to rather arbitrary implementation of state SupremeCourt judgements, the changes in the redistributive consequences of these policies are relatively uncorrelated with changes in the states' income and education distributions. I find partial support for the hypothesis that redistribution through education reduces income inequality among adults. I do not find support for the hypothesis that it raises income growth. Because the U.S. relies so heavily on redistribution through education,weak effects are problematic and suggest that understanding where the method "breaks down" is important.