Immigrant populations typically have lower mortality rates and longer life expectancies than their nonimmigrant counterparts. This immigrant mortality advantage has been a recurrent finding in demographic and population health research focused on contemporary waves of immigration. However, historical data suggest that European immigrants to the United States in the early twentieth century had worse health and higher rates of mortality, yet it remains unclear why a mortality advantage was absent for immigrants during this period. This article combines Vital Statistics records and Lee–Carter mortality models to analyze mortality by nativity status for the U.S. White population from 1900 to 1960, examining variation by age, sex, time, and place. Contrary to contemporary expectations of a foreign-born mortality advantage, White immigrants had higher mortality rates in the early 1900s, with the largest foreign-born disadvantage among the youngest and oldest populations. Although foreign-born and U.S.-born White mortality rates trended toward convergence over time, the foreign-born mortality penalty remained into the 1950s. A decomposition analysis finds that immigrants' concentration in cities, which had higher rates of infectious disease mortality, accounted for nearly half of the nativity difference in 1900, and this place effect declined in subsequent decades. Additional evidence, such as a spike in mortality inequalities during the 1918 influenza pandemic, suggests that common explanations for the immigrant mortality advantage may be less influential in a context of high risk from infectious disease.

This paper develops a measure of Capital-Embodied Innovation (CEI). The measure counts the number of patents applied to capital goods by matching patent documents with Wikipedia articles on capital goods. Using occupation-level variations on the sets of capital goods from O*NET, we document that CEI is biased toward abstract and non-routine occupations. Furthermore, we highlight the heterogeneous effects of CEI across the capital good-occupation relationship. When the capital good performs a similar function as the occupational task (task-substituting capital), the CEI reduces the relative demand for labor. In case the capital good performs a different function than the occupation tasks (task-complementing capital), the CEI raises relative demand for labor. Abstract occupations have disproportionately more CEI on task-complementing capital than non-abstract occupations. A model-based counterfactual implies that the employment growth between the 1980s and the 2010s would be significantly less biased towards abstract task occupations without CEI. The degree of job polarization and occupational wage inequality would have also been lower without CEI.

In 1968, John Kain hypothesized that Black residential suburbanization was not accompanying the suburbanization of jobs, leading to poor employment outcomes, especially for young Black men. This paper reinvestigates “spatial mismatch” in the 2000s to 2010s, focusing on differences between urban and suburban White, Black, and Hispanic residents of the U.S. We find some evidence for spatial mismatch when pooling data from across the entire time frame, and stronger evidence for mismatch among African Americans than among Hispanic people. First, we find that urban Black and Hispanic people have had measurably lower wages than equivalent suburbanites. Second, we find a higher probability of un- and under-employment for urban Black people relative to their suburban counterparts. Third, all else equal, Black and Hispanic people in general have longer commutes than White people do – suggesting that many people of color live in places with inferior access to employment (though suburban residence mitigates this effect). On the other hand, we also find considerable evidence that spatial mismatch may not be as serious a problem as many believe, particularly in recent years. For example, the wage premium for suburban people – White, Black, and Hispanic – has dropped over time, meaning that the effects of spatial mismatch may be falling. Further, urban Hispanic people do not have a higher probability of unemployment, and urban and suburban Black and Hispanic people do not work in different types of occupations, so location is not associated with suburbanites holding more or less “desirable” jobs.

The food and agriculture sector is designated as one of sixteen critical infrastructure sectors according to the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. At a time when many non-essential or non-critical businesses were required to close temporarily, the essential critical infrastructure workforce played an outsized role in helping states endure the pandemic. We examine unemployment and labor force participation rates among pre-pandemic essential workers using panel data from the Current Population Survey from January to May 2020. Our findings indicate that workers in the food and agriculture sector were more likely to become unemployed or exit the labor force compared to workers in other essential sectors. However, within the food and agriculture sector, the food manufacturing subsector experienced lower likelihoods of unemployment and non-participation compared to the other subsectors of the food and agriculture sector. Analysis by worker characteristic reveals that unemployment and non-participation were greater among women, Black non-Hispanics compared to White non-Hispanics, and immigrants within the food and agriculture sector..

Tracking cause of death statistics is crucial to monitoring the health of the people. It is also important for the calculation of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) indicators such as 3.4.1 (Mortality rates attributed to cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes or chronic respiratory disease), 3.4.2 (Suicide mortality rate), 3.6.1 (Death rate due to road traffic injuries), 3.9.1(Mortality rate attributed to household and ambient air pollution), 3.9.2 (Mortality rate attributed to unsafe water, unsafe sanitation, and lack of hygiene) and 3.9.3 (Mortality rate attributed to unintentional poisoning). However, the quality of cause of death statistics in Asia is often insufficient.

The degree to which labor markets are well integrated across space and occupation has important welfare and distributional consequences for workers1. This is especially true in the United States, where the economy having high occupational and geographic mobility are essential elements of the American story (Ferrie 2005). One version of this story is that a national labor market emerged in the United States after the Civil War. How this integration unfolded unevenly matters in understanding the evolution of different parts of the American economy2. Until recently economic historians have had to rely on uneven data and approaches to measure labor market integration (Kim 98). Common approaches involved comparing aggregate population and occupation trends over time or relied on myopic wage and price data to make inferences about larger regions (Rosenbloom 90). Today the availability of high-quality US census data at the individual level provides economic historians with new opportunities to better measure labor market integration (Abramitzky et al 2017). This paper uses a discrete version of the dynamic approach employed in Artuc and McLaren (2015) to measure switching costs faced by workers when moving between different locations or occupations. As labor markets become better integrated, these costs should approach zero. Studying the period between 1850 to 1880 and 1900 to 1940 decade by decade shows that the fixed costs of changing location or occupation increased between 1850 to 1880 and declined during the 20th century. Though direct comparisons of the two costs are not possible, the fixed costs of changing location fell roughly 15 percent while fixed costs of changing occupation fell roughly 25 percent. Even when a labor market is well integrated, the welfare gains depend on the details of this integration. One can imagine a labor market that may be well integrated because low-skilled workers face low switching costs when moving between low-skilled occupations or across locations but still face large hurdles when transitioning out of low-skilled work. To better measure occupational integration in the United States, additional costs for workers in low-skilled occupation groups when transitioning into the high-skilled occupation group are also estimated. These costs also decline through time, except for farmers whose costs of switching into high-skilled labor increase with time. In particular, the costs faced by unskilled workers transitioning into high-skilled work declined nearly 45 percent while the costs faced by farmers increased by 8 percent. This paper contributes to three strands of literature. The first is the literature already discussed above that focuses on quantifying labor market integration in the US during this period. This literature (Wright 1986, 1987, Rosenbloom 1990, Collins and Wannamaker 2015, and Mitchener and McLean 1998) highlight two commonly observed trends. The first is that labor market integration increased during this period. The second is that Southern labor markets were uniquely different from the rest of the country. The evidence supports the first point and potentially the second point since farmers faced higher costs, and the South had a greater share of workers in agriculture than other parts of the country. The second literature is one that includes the intersection of trade theory and American economic history. For example, Kim (1998) and Steinwender (2018) have taken trade theory to historical data to improve our understanding of important economic forces at the time. In addition, Artuc et al (2010) have generated models that are uniquely suited to the constraints of this historical setting. This paper provides another example of how these rich models can be combined with historical data to continue improving our understanding of the time period. The final literature this paper contributes to is one studying the effect of changes in migration patterns in the US. Abramitzky and Boustan (2017) summarize some of their and much of the other work done in this area, often using linked census data to measure immigrant outcomes. Ferrie (2005) and Salisbury (2014) focus on the effect of differential changes in migration rates across space, in particular declining rates of migration across state lines. Caselli and Coleman (2001) and Alston and Hatton (1991) highlight the impacts of the changing composition of the labor force during this period as agriculture lost its majority share of the workforce. This paper contributes to this literature as well by showing that these declining migration rates in conjunction with declining costs provide evidence of increasing labor market integration. This paper also shows that farmers faced statistically different costs compared to other groups when transitioning into high-skilled work.

This study proposes an econometric framework to interpret and empirically decompose the difference between IV and OLS estimates given by a linear regression model when the true causal effects of the treatment are nonlinear in treatment levels and heterogeneous across covariates. I show that the IV-OLS coefficient gap consists of three estimable components: the difference in weights on the covariates, the difference in weights on the treatment levels, and the difference in identified marginal effects that arises from endogeneity bias. Applications of this framework to return-to-schooling estimates demonstrate the empirical relevance of this distinction in properly interpreting the IV-OLS gap.

This study examines racial inequalities in changing self-employment rates associated with natural hazard impacts and federal recovery assistance in ethnoracially diverse metropolitan counties between 2000 and 2010. It advances the viewpoint that such inequalities can stem from hoarded opportunities tied to white privilege in addition to commonly highlighted social vulnerabilities tied to racial inequities and exclusion. To test that proposition, we conduct change-score analyses using county-level data from the US Census Bureau, the Spatial Hazard Events and Losses Database for the United States, and the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Results indicate that (a) overall, self-employment rates increase with local property damages from natural hazards, especially among white and Latino workers; (b) those increases are largely explained by the amount of federal public assistance received for disaster recovery, not property damages themselves; and (c) white workers experience the most positive and consistent increases in self-employment from federal recovery assistance. Implications for understanding racial inequities stemming from current and future disasters and government assistance are discussed.

In the aftermath of World War I, U.S. discourse was animated by the concern that demobilized soldiers, having experienced the world outside of their hometowns, would resist returning to farms and to their preinduction occupations. Did military service really encourage an occupational shift? Were rural individuals especially susceptible to and was emplacement in foreign locales especially culpable for this change, as popular culture suggested? Focusing on North Dakota, a state with unusually detailed World War I records, this article uses a novel linked census–military data set and statistical analysis to examine how individuals’ place-based military experience might have inflected their postwar occupational mobility. Whereas univariate models support the contemporary perception that farm boys with overseas service were less likely to remain in agriculture, increasingly complex models suggest more nuanced interpretations, with civilian individual and contextual characteristics and their interaction being significantly predictive of farm leaving. Addressing substantive gaps in World War I historiography by contextualizing neglected subpopulations, this research also shows the value of using quantitative methods to engage with critical military geographies. Operationalizing theories of place–individual co-constitution through the analysis of longitudinal, individual data demonstrates how interest in soldiers’ experiences and in the spatiotemporally distant effects of war can be productively intertwined.

This purpose of this study is to understand the nature of rent exploitation, or the cost burden that marginalized renters bear in an unequal housing market. I ask how rent exploitation is related to neighborhood characteristics and facilitated by residential segregation, and is further associated with housing problems including rent burden and eviction. Using the American Community Survey, I analyze rent exploitation and rent burden in neighborhoods by how they relate to neighborhood characteristics and residential segregation. I also use eviction records for a case study of Harris County, TX to analyze how rent exploitation impacts eviction rates. I find that neighborhoods with higher percentages of racially minoritized households and households below the poverty line experience higher levels of rent exploitation. Furthermore I find residential segregation is associated with more unequal levels of rent exploitation. Regression and GIS analysis together reveal that Black, Latinx, and poorer neighborhoods experience the highest levels of rent exploitation and eviction in Harris County. These findings reveal the conditions under which renters are more vulnerable to rent exploitation. Residential segregation is a mechanism of racial capitalism that makes inequality durable at the expense of Black and Latinx renters and renters below the poverty line.

We develop a granular, occupation-specific measure of technological progress that relies only on textual descriptions of patent documents and the tasks performed by workers in an occupation. Our measure primarily identifies labor-saving innovations and is broadly available from the 19th century to the present. Examining the type of worker tasks most exposed to innovation, we find that while non-routine manual (physical) and routine-manual tasks have been highly exposed throughout the last 150 years, the innovations of the information technology revolution in the post-1980 period saw an increased relationship with cognitive tasks. Using a panel of administrative data on worker earnings, we show that the earnings of older and more highly-paid workers are more responsive to our technology exposure measure, a pattern consistent with skill displacement. Our calibrated model fits these facts and emphasizes the importance of movements in skill quantities, not just skill prices, for the link between technology and inequality.

Interracial marriages have increased in the US over the past several decades, but the trends differ across race, gender, and education groups. This suggests that racial desegregation in the marriage market may not have improved marriage prospects of all groups. This paper studies why some groups have gained more from marital desegregation than others over the past four decades. To this end, I build a transferable utility matching model to define and estimate the welfare gains from marital desegregation by comparing the equilibrium rates of singlehood in the observed marriage market with those in a completely segregated marriage market. I find that among Blacks and Whites, college-educated men gained more than their female and lower-educated male counterparts. To understand why, I implement a decomposition method based on quantitative comparative statics to examine the separate roles of the changes in population distribution and the changes in marital surplus. I find that the rise in the welfare gains for college-educated Black men is largely driven by the increase in the joint surplus from marriage with college-educated White women. Other Black men and women did not benefit as much from any change in the marital surplus, implying that race relations have not improved in the marriage market except for the most educated Black men. I also find that the rise in welfare gains for college-educated White men is mechanically driven by the increase in the number of college-educated Asian and Hispanic women. Simulation results suggest that progress toward racial integration in the marriage market would significantly reduce the rates of single-hood among Blacks.

In the first chapter, we estimate the impact of exposure to the 2015 Nepal Earthquake on intimate partner violence with two rounds of Demographic and Health Surveys data. Using differences-in-differences estimation, we find that exposure to the earthquake lead to a statistically and economically significant increase in intimate partner violence in the urban areas but not in the rural areas. This is possibly due to an increase in the stress felt by the victims. We also offer some evidence that the impact heterogeneity between the urban and rural areas is attributable to the differences in the reconstruction processes and assistance provided. The second chapter considers the long term consequences of the Bengal famine of 1943-44 on its survivors about 60 years later. Using World Health survey (WHS) data from Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal and applying differences-in-differences methodology, I find that those with exposure to more intense famine reported having significantly higher number of symptoms of diseases such as asthma, angina, TB and depression. In addition, they were significantly more likely to face difficulty with their daily life activities. However, the results are almost entirely concentrated among females with males showing almost no negative long term impact of the famine. An investigation of possible mechanisms explaining this gender disparity point towards mortality selection among males being more relevant in explaining the disparity as opposed to son preference hypothesis. The third chapter explores the causal impact of the mid day meal program on parental investment in education for primary school going children in India. Using the first round of the Indian Human Development Survey (IHDS) and exploiting the staggered implementation of the mid day meal program across different states in India, we find that the amount spent on school fees reduces significantly by 16 percent for children who are eligible to receive the mid day meal. The significant decrease in school fees can, in part, be attributed to parents transferring their children from private to government schools. We further find that such transfers do not lead to any improvement in learning or health outcomes. However, we do not find any evidence of gender discrimination in school expenditures that might adversely affect the girl child.

We study the consequences of later marriage on subsequent life outcomes. China's family planning policies in the early 1970s – before the One-Child Policy – regulated not only childbirth but also marriage. The recommended minimum marriage age of 25 years for men and 23 years for women was effectively relaxed when the government formally introduced the One-Child Policy and put greater emphasis on directly controlling fertility rather than marriage. Subsequently, we find that the marriage age, which had been increasing steadily since 1970, suddenly started to decline in the early 1980s. This policy shift provides us with an opportunity to apply a regression probability jump and kink design for the purpose of identification. Using data from the 2000 census, we establish that later-married men have fewer children and that later-married women are more likely to participate in the labor market. We find no consistent evidence that later marriage improves education, probably because most Chinese people marry after completing their education.

In 1912, the last of the lower 48 states were admitted to the Union. New technology made it easier for people to move to areas previously avoided by most migrants and sustain new communities there. It also made it easier than ever to move goods across the country. However, some elements of economic integration seemed to lag behind. Scholars like Rosenbloom (2002) have long argued that regional labor markets, sufficiently separated from a national labor market, persisted through this period and even up to and through the Second World War. Studying how, why, and which labor markets remained isolated during this period helps us understand sources of push and pull forces responsible for increasing labor market integration in the United States. This paper combines newly collected data from the US Census of Manufactures for 1900, 1910, 1920, 1930, and 1940 with a new measure of labor market integration to better measure the frictions present in American regional labor markets and their implications for overall regional labor market integration. In the past, scholars like Wright (1987) and Rosenbloom (1990) have focused on using data on real wages and an appeal to a law of one price to measure labor market integration. The law of one price is an economic theory that economic historians have borrowed from trade economists and while it is possible to implement it successfully in a historical setting as in Steinwender (2018), the lack of good historical data often makes it a challenge to implement successfully. Usually a law of one price is invoked to measure the size of bilateral frictions in a market for a homogeneous good with reliable price data. One way to utilize a law of one price to measure labor market integration involves comparing real wages for the same occupation across different regions of the country. The literature has found that real wages did converge over time, but that there were persistent differences in real wages between some regions such as in Wright (1987). In particular, Mitchener & McLean (1999) find that Southern wages tended to be lower than the national average while Western wages tended to be higher. Based on these differences in real wages, the literature (Wright 1986), Rosenbloom 2002), Collins & Wannamaker 2015) have inferred the presence of significant labor market frictions and additional evidence has led to a focus on the unique facets of the Southern economy and the conclusion that the South possessed a labor market largely disconnected from the rest of the country. However, there are two reasons to believe that the strategy of inferring labor market frictions from real wages is not appropriate in this setting. The first reason is that we do not have reliable individual wage data before it was reported in the US Census starting in 1940. Even in newer publications like Salisbury (2014) and Abramitzky et al (2017), authors that want to incorporate wage data into their analysis before 1940 either have to rely on scattered data or rely on wage proxies. The second reason is that even if one can acquire enough wage data for a particular occupation or industry from a sufficiently large number of regions, the work that two individuals with the same occupation perform may be different enough to violate the law of one price assumption which requires the comparison of homogeneous labor market activity. Specifically, the concern is that even if we can control for region or industry-specific characteristics, there may be unobserved productivity differences that can bias estimation when using wages. Because of these limitations, this paper employs a regression specification from Bernard et al (2013) that relies on using a ratio of wage bills for different types of labor within an industry-region pair as the outcome variable in a law of one price regression rather than relying on incomplete wage data. However, wage bills may vary in competitive labor markets due to differences in the initial distribution of population. As in Bernard et al (2013), this paper uses a ratio of the wage bill for two types of workers: wage earners and salaried workers as the outcome variable to solve this problem. When using the ratio of two types of workers, any differences in endowed population at the region-industry level that would make a wage bill inappropriate to use for a law of one price regression are canceled. For ease of exposition, this ratio is referred to as a measure of skill premium since it measures the relative value each region-industry pair places on employing highly skilled (salaried) or low skilled (wage) labor. Because these wage bills are the product of labor demand and wages, unobserved productivity for each worker type can be controlled for. As with real wages, once the industrial composition within a state is controlled for, the law of one price argument states that any differences we observe in the average skill premium across regions are the result of labor market frictions since different types of workers would migrate to secure higher earnings in the absence of labor market frictions. In other words, once we control for the fact that Michigan had a larger share of its industrial composition in high skill premium industries like automobiles, and Wisconsin had a larger share of its industrial composition in lower skill premium industries like dairy, differences in state-level premium come from labor market frictions that prevent worker migration between skill levels, industries, and locations. The wage bill data by region and industry come from the US Census of Manufactures. While this paper is not the first to use these wage bill data, to my knowledge, this is the first paper to use data for the decadal years 1900-1940 inclusive that includes all of the recorded industrial activity instead of just focusing on the largest industries. These data were hand-recorded from scanned versions of the Census of Manufactures that are available for public access through the Census website. The data collected include all of the lower 48 states and the District of Columbia for 1900, 1910, 1920, 1930, and 1940 along with a panel of 44 cities described in the data section. These new data and the new measure used in this paper contribute directly to the literature on postbellum labor market integration in the US. However, these contributions are also relevant for the literature that has measured regional integration such as Kim (1998) that measure regional integration through non-wage channels. Other papers like Ferrie (2005) that have studied labor market integration with respect to different groups of workers, such as immigrants, can also benefit from these new data as controls to better understand push and pull forces that affect workers' decisions to relocate into different locations or occupations. With a simple OLS regression of the log of the wage bills against a full set of industry and state fixed effects, this paper finds two results about labor market integration in the United States. The first result is that labor market integration increased across the entire country between 1900 and 1940 as measured by the distribution of region fixed effects. This result is consistent with the existing narrative of labor market integration during this period. However, these increases were not smooth, and it appears that the increase in labor market integration took place between 1920 and 1930. The second result is that there is weak, if any, evidence of Southern labor markets being statistically different from any other regions. Neither the distribution, statistical significance, or magnitude of the region fixed effects support the idea that Southern labor markets included more labor market frictions than the rest of the country. The conclusions of this paper do not seek to overturn our understanding that there were differences in regional labor markets. Meaningful differences existed in 1900 and continued to exist in 1940. However, neighboring

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic introduced a new compensable infectious disease to workplaces. Methods: This was a descriptive analysis of Wisconsin COVID workers' compensation (WC) claims between March 12 and December 31, 2020. The impact of the presumption law (March 12 to June 10, 2020) was also evaluated. Results: Less than 1% of working-age residents with COVID-19 filed a claim. COVID-19 WC claim rates (per 100,000 FTE) were notably low for frontline industry sectors such as Retail Trade (n = 115), Manufacturing (n = 88), and Wholesale Trade (n = 31). Healthcare workers (764 claims per 100,000 FTE) comprised 73.2% of COVID-19 claims. Most claims (52.8%) were denied and the proportion of denied claims increased significantly after the presumption period for both first responders and other occupations. Conclusion: The presumption law made benefits accessible primarily to first responders. Further changes to WC systems are needed to offset the individual and collective costs of infectious diseases.

This research explores the causal effects of labor market conditions on college enrollment and attainment of high school graduates and answers the following questions: Does leaving high school in unfavorable labor market conditions cause a higher probability of college enrollment? Is this effect different between gender and across racial/ethnic groups? Does this effect vary regarding cognitive ability? Does this effect change over cohorts/generations? And does the positive effect on college enrollment in the short run translate into a positive effect on college degree attainment later?

This paper analyzes the link between foreign aid for family planning services and a broad set of health outcomes. More specifically, it documents the harmful effects of the so-called “Mexico City Policy” (MCP), which restricts US funding for nongovernmental organizations that provide abortion-related services abroad. First enacted in 1985, the MCP is implemented along partisan lines; it is enforced only when a Republican administration is in office and quickly rescinded when a Democrat wins the presidency. Although previous research has shown that MCP causes significant disruption to family planning programs worldwide, its consequences for health outcomes, such as mortality and HIV rates, remain underexplored. The independence of the MCP’s implementation from the situation in recipient countries allows us to systematically study its impact. Using country-level data from 134 countries between 1990 and 2015, we first show that the MCP is associated with higher maternal and child mortality and HIV incidence rates. These effects are magnified by dependence on US aid while mitigated by funds from non-US donors. Next, we complement these results using individual-level data from 30 low- and middle-income countries and show that, under the MCP, women have less access to modern contraception and are less exposed to information on family planning and AIDS via in-person channels. Moreover, pregnant women are more likely to report that their pregnancy is not desired. Our findings highlight the importance of mitigating the harmful effects of MCP by redesigning or counteracting this policy.

Este libro presenta una serie de trabajos que analizan de manera interdisciplinaria varias de las problemáticas actuales que enfrentan dos actores emergentes de las migraciones internacionales: la niñez y la adolescencia. Desde hace varias décadas, la imagen de los actores de la migración internacional se ha diversificado, transitando del varón que migra solo para enviar remesas a la familia en origen o para lograr la reunificación familiar en destino, hasta la presencia de mujeres, personas adultas mayores, personas con diversidad funcional, personas con distintas orientaciones sexuales, familias y niñas, niños, adolescentes (nnya) y jóvenes en los flujos migratorios. Debido a una articulación entre la invisibilidad a la que todavía se somete a la niñez y a la adolescencia en el estudio de la movilidad en comparación con los grupos de adultos y los distintos medios que se emplean para migrar, se desconoce con exactitud el número de nnya que migran en el mundo en general, y en el continente americano en particular. Sin embargo, unicef ofrece algunas estimaciones abrumadoras al respecto:1 en las Américas viven 6.3 millones de nnya migrantes (20 % del total mundial), uno de cada diez migrantes es menor de edad y cuatro de cada cinco nnya migrantes viven en tres países americanos: Canadá, Estados Unidos y México. La presencia de nnya migrantes en América registra los siguientes porcentajes: 8 % en América del Norte, 15 % en el Caribe y 15 % en América del Sur. 43 % de todos los migrantes que viven en América Central son nnya.

Introduction As children get older, their caloric requirements increase. Consequently, households with children facing a restricted budget may find it more challenging to meet the dietary needs of their children and the rest of their household, leading to negative social and health outcomes. There is active research interest in how food security response patterns differ with household structure and other variables.